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C75520  85@0<<0B8:0 0=3;89A:>3> O7K:0: >@D>;>38O. !8=B0:A8A. #G51=>5 ?>A>185 4;O ABC45=B>2 ?5403>38G5A:8E 8=AB8BCB>2 8 C=825@A8B5B>2 ?> A?5F80;L=>AB8 ! 2103 "=>AB@0==K5 O7K:8". - !1., !., 1999. - 496 A.   ! 065425 >B 30.09.97ISBN 5-87852-108-3 >A>185 ?@54AB02;O5B A>1>9 2B>@>5 4>?>;=5==>5 8 ?5@5@01>B0==>5 8740=85 @0=55 8740==>3> :C@A0 ?@0:B8G5A:>9 3@0<<0B8:8 2 42CE G0ABOE - >@D>;>38O (., @>A25I5=85, 1985) 8 !8=B0:A8A (., @>A25I5=85, 1986). >A>185 1K;> 4>?CI5=> 8=8AB5@AB2>< ?@>A25I5=8O !!!  2 :0G5AB25 CG51=>3> ?>A>18O 4;O ABC45=B>2 ?5403>38G5A:8E 8=AB8BCB>2 ?> A?5F80;L=>AB8 !2103 "=>AB@0==K5 O7K:8". 5F5=75=BK: 0D54@0 3@0<<0B8:8 0=3;89A:>3> O7K:0 8=A:>3> /; ?@>D5AA>@ . /. ;>E ( 8<. . . 5=8=0) 2B>@K C45;ONB >A>1>5 2=8<0=85 B5< 3@0<<0B8G5A:8< O2;5=8O<, :>B>@K5 =5 8<5NB 0=0;>3>2 2 @CAA:>< O7K:5. @838=0;-<0:5B >43>B>28;0 . . @;>20  . . >1@8=0, . . >@=5520, . . AA>2A:0O, , . C75520 "!.", 1999 . . >@5;8:>2, >D>@<;5=85 >1;>6:8, 1999  >25;;0 ;5:A0=4@>2=0 >1@8=0, ;5=0 ;5:A0=4@>2=0 >@=5520, 0@8O ;L8=8G=0 AA>2A:0O , A5=8O ;5:A0=4@>2=0 C75520  " ! /+ >@D>;>38O. !8=B0:A8A #G51=>5 ?>A>185 >4?8A0=> 2 ?5G0BL 25 8N;O 1999 3. $>@<0B 70E1001/16. 0@=8BC@0 "09<A. C<030 >DA5B=0O. 5G0BL >DA5B=0O. 1J5<: 31,0 ?5G. ;. "8@06 10 000 M:7. 0:07 ! 830. 740B5;LAB2> !. 195197, !0=:B-5B5@1C@3, C;. 0A5=:>, 6. 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A=>2=>9 <0B5@80; CG51=8:0 87;0305BAO A ?>78F89 A>2@5<5==>9 0=3;89A:>9 ;8B5@0BC@=>9 3@0<<0B8G5A:>9 =>@<K, >4=0:> D8:A8@CNBAO 8 0<5@8:0=A:85 20@80=BK, 0 B0:65 :>;;>:280;87<K 8 0@E08G5A:85 D>@<K, 8A?>;L7C5<K5 2 ?>M788. 064>9 =>2>9 B5<5 ?@54?>AK;0NBAO :@0B:85 A2545=8O, 40NI85 >1ICN E0@0:B5@8AB8:C >?8AK205<>3> O2;5=8O. @>945==K9 <0B5@80; @5:><5=4C5BAO 70:@5?;OBL A5@8O<8 C?@06=5=89, A@548 :>B>@KE 7=0G8B5;L=>5 <5AB> 4>;6=K 70=8<0BL C?@06=5=8O :><<C=8:0B82=>3> B8?0. ;O C4>1AB20 ?>;L7>20=8O 25AL <0B5@80; CG51=8:0 @0745;5= =0 ?0@03@0DK, 8<5NI85 A:2>7=CN =C<5@0F8N. A=>2=>9 8;;NAB@0B82=K9 <0B5@80; ?>G5@?=CB 87 0=3;>-0<5@8:0=A:>9 ;8B5@0BC@K ?>A;54=8E 45AOB8;5B89. >A>185 1K;> 0?@>18@>20=> 2 B5G5=85 =5A:>;L:8E ;5B =0 0=3;89A:>< >B45;5=88 D0:C;LB5B0 8=>AB@0==KE O7K:>2 # 8<. . . 5@F5=0. 2B>@K INTRODUCTION The grammatical system of English, like that of any other language, possesses its own peculiar features. The English language has comparatively few grammatical inflections. They are the plural and the Genitive case endings of some nouns, the comparative degree endings of some adjectives and adverbs; personal inflections of verbs are confined to the third person singular and the opposition of the forms was - were. What is most characteristic of these inflections in comparison with Russian is that they are more unified. Thus the plural ending -s in nouns is used with the majority of count nouns. The few exceptions (such as tooth - teeth, goose - geese, child - children, ox - oxen) are regarded as obsolete forms. In the sphere of the verb, however, many complications arise, as there is no such regularity among the past tense and participle II forms. Some of them are formed with the inflection -ed (help - helped helped), others by means of root vowel change (bring - brought - brought, come - came - come). The latter are considered as irregular verbs. Alongside synthetic forms, the verb has an elaborate system of analytical forms (most of the tense, aspect and perfect forms, the passive voice forms, most of the subjunctive mood forms). The analytical forms, include an auxiliary verb, as the bearer of the grammatical meaning, and a notional part: has gone, was sent, would like, to be posted, being done, having been done, etc. Many words are not inflected at all: most adjectives and adverbs, modal words, statives, non-count nouns, conjunctions, prepositions, particles and interjections. Moreover, most words are devoid of any word-forming (derivational) morphemes which would show that they belong to a certain class. This lack of morphological distinctions between the classes accounts for the fact that a great number of words (both notional and functional words) may easily pass from one class to another, their status being determined mainly syntactically, by their function in the sentence. The prevailing role of syntax over morphology is also revealed in the fact that words, phrases and clauses may be used in the same functions. The order of elements in the English sentence is fixed to a greater degree than in inflected languages (as the Russian language). The order subject - predicate - object is most characteristic of statements, and any modification of it is always justified by either stylistic or communicative considerations. Attributes may precede or follow head-word, the first pattern being more usual. The most mobile element in the sentence is the adverbial, but that can be explained by its reference to different parts of the sentence. A most peculiar feature of English is a special set of words employed as structural substitutes for a certain part of speech: noun substitutes (one, that), the verb substitute (do), the adverbs and adjective substitute (so). Morphology PARTS OF SPEECH 1. All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes. This classification is based on three main principles: 1) their grammatical meaning; 2) their form and 3) their syntactical characteristics. By the first we understand the meaning common to all the words of the class, such as thingness for the noun or either process or state for the verb. By the second we mean the morphological characteristics of the class meant, such as the number of the noun or the voice of the verb. By the third - the combinability and the syntactical functions of a type of word. We distinguish between notional and functional parts of speech: the former denoting extralinguistic phenomena such as things, actions, qualities, emotions and the latter - relations and connections between notional words or sentences. Thus there are 9 notional parts of speech and 3 functional ones. The notional parts of speech are:The functional parts of speech are: the noun the adjective the stative the pronoun the numeral the verb the adverb the modal words the interjection the preposition the conjunction the particle THE VERB 2. Most verbs denote action or state. However, there are some verbs which have other meanings. They are modal verbs, causative verbs, some impersonal verbs, relational and link-verbs. They present a system of finite and non-finite forms, except for modal verbs, which have no non-finite forms. The verb in its finite forms possesses the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, perfect, voice and mood. Its syntactical function is that of the predicate. The non-finite forms (or verbals) are four in number, they are: the infinitive, the gerund, participle I and participle II. Non-finite verb forms possess the verbal categories of perfect, voice and to a certain extent aspect. Owing to the richness of its morphological categories, the flexibility of its syntactical functioning and wide combinability, the verb is of the greatest importance in the structure of the sentence. The morphological categories of the verb are interrelated, that is every verb form expresses all these categories simultaneously. Formation of verb categories 3. English morphological categories are formed in two ways, synthetically and analytically. Synthetic or simple forms are those the formal elements of which are to be found within one word from which they are inseparable. These are the present and the past indefinite affirmative (sing, sings, sang); the non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive, participle I, the gerund, participle II (sing, singing, sung); the imperative mood (sing!). Analytical or compound verb forms consist of at least two verbal elements, an auxiliary verb and a notional verb; the latter is presented by participle I, participle II, or the infinitive. An auxiliary verb is devoid of its lexical meaning, its role is purely grammatical. It may be finite or non-finite, thus showing whether the whole verb form is finite or non-finite as in: Jane is singing. Someone seems to be singing in the next room. The auxiliary verbs in English are not numerous, they are seven: to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. The notional verb of a compound verb form is always non-finite, it carries the lexical meaning of the whole verb form. The analytical verb forms are the forms of the continuous aspect, the perfect forms, the passive forms, the future forms, the future in the past forms, some forms of the subjunctive mood, the interrogative, negative and emphatic forms of the present and past indefinite. The meaning of the analytical form as a whole is the result of the complete fusion of the auxiliary and the non-finite form. Morphological composition 4. According to their morphological composition verbs can be divided into simple, derivative, compound and phrasal. Simple verbs consist of only one root morpheme: to ask, to build, to come. Derivative verbs are composed of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes and suffixes). The main verbforming suffixes are -ize, -fy, -en, -ate, as in: to criticize, to justify, to blacken, to enumerate. Compound verbs consist of at least two stems: to overgrow, to undertake. Phrasal verbs consist of a verbal stem and an adverbial particle, which is sometimes referred to as postposition. The adverbial meaning is evident in phrasal verbs of the type to come in, to look out, whereas it is quite lost in the verbs to give up, to give in, to bring up. Basic verb forms 5. Among the synthetic verb forms there are those which are used independently and those which are used to build other verb forms. They are four in number: the infinitive the past indefinite participle II participle Iwork, rise; worked, rose; worked, risen; - working, rising. The infinitive stem and participles I and II are employed to build other verbal forms. The past indefinite is the only basic form that is not used to build other forms. Regular and irregular verbs 6. Owing to the historical development of the verb system the English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular verbs. The regular verbs, which go back to the Germanic weak verbs, constitute the largest group. The past indefinite and participle II of these verbs are formed by means of the dental suffix -ed added to the stem of the verb. This is the productive pattern according to which all new verbs form their past indefinite and participle II. The irregular verbs form their past indefinite and participle II according t> some fixed traditional patterns going back partly to the Germanic strong verbs, partly to the weak verbs, which underwent some changes in the process of history. The irregular verbs are about 250 in number. They can be arranged according to sound changes. The list of irregular verbs arranged according to sound changes Infinitive Past Indefinite Participle II Translation 1 2 3 4 [j] [] []  begin [bjgjn] began [bj'gn] begun [bj'gn] =0G8=0BL drink [dnjKk] drank [drKk] drunk [drKk] ?8BL ring [rjK] rang [3K] rung [rK] 72>=8BL shrink [+"rjnk] shrank [srKk] shrunk [+"rKk] A>:@0I0BL(AO) sing [sjK] sang [sK] sung [sK] ?5BL sink [sjKk] sank [sKk] sunk [sKk] B>=CBL spring [sprjK] sprang [sprK] sprung [sprK] ?@K30BL stink [stjKk] stank [stKk] stunk [stKk] 2>=OBL swim [swjm] swam [swm] swum [swm] ?;020BL [j] [] []  dig [djg] dug [dg] dug [dg] :>?0BL fling [fljn] flung [flK] flung [flK] :840BL(AO) spin [spjn] spun [spn] spun [spn] ?@OABL stick [stjk] stuck [stk] stuck [stk] 2BK:0BL sting [stjK] stung [stK] stung [stK] 60;8BL swing [swjK] swung [swK] swung [swK] :0G0BL(AO) win [wjn] won [wn] won [wn] ?>15640BL wring [rjK] wrung [3K] wrung [rK] A:@CG820BL [j] [] []  sit [sjt] sat [st] sat [st] A845BL spit [spjt] spat [spt] spat [spt] ?;520BJ(AO) [i:] [e] [e]  bleed [bl:d] bled [bled] bled [bled] :@>2>B>G8BL breed [bri:d] bred [bred] bred [bred] 2K2>48BL, @072>48BL    (682>B=KE) feed [fi:d] fed [fed] fed [fed] :>@<8BL lead [li:d] led [led] led [led] 25AB8 meet [mi:t] met [met] met [met] 2AB@5G0BL(AO) read [ri:d] read [red] read [red] G8B0BL speed [spi:d] sped [sped] sped [sped] A?5H8BL [5] get [get] [T] got [gTt] [T] got [gTt] ?>;CG0BL [] hang [hK] [] 1) hung [hK] 2) hanged [hKd] [] hung [hK] hanged [hKd]  25H0BL 25H0BL (:07=8BL) [aj] bind [bajnd] ] find [fajnd] grind [grajnd] wind [wajnd] [au] bound [baund] found [faund] ground [graund] wound [waund] [au] bound [baund] found [faund] ground [graund] wound [waund]  A2O7K20BL =0E>48BL <>;>BL 28BLAO [aj] light [lajt] slide [slajd] [j] lit [ljt] slid [sljd] [j] lit [ljt] slid [sljd]  A25B8BL, 706830BL A:>;L78BL [aj] shine [+"ajn] [T] shone [+"T n] [T] shone [+"Tn]  A25B8BL, A8OBL [aj] fight [fajt] [T:] fought [f T:t] [T :] fought [f T:t]  1>@>BLAO[aj] strike [strajk] [] struck [strk] [] struck [strk]  C40@OBL(AO) [ou] hold [hould] [e] held [held] [e] held [held]  45@60BL [u:] shoot [+"u:t] [T] shot[+"T t] [T] shot [+"T t]  AB@5;OBL [i:] creep [kri:p] keep [ki:p] leap [li:p] [e] crept [krept] kept [kept] leapt [lept] leaped [e] crept [krept] kept [kept] leapt [lept] leaped  ?>;70BL 45@60BL ?@K30BL [i:] sweep [swi:p] sleep [sli:p] weep [wi:p] [e] swept [swept] slept [slept] wept [wept] [e] swept [swept] slept [slept] wept [wept]  <5AB8, ?>4<5B0BL A?0BL ?;0:0BL, @K40BL [e] [ou] [ou]  sell [sel] sold [sould] sold [sould] ?@>4020BL tell [tel] told [tould] told [tould] 3>2>@8BL [i:] [e] [e]  flee [fli:] fled [fled] fled [fled] 1560BL,    A?0A0BLAO    153AB2>< [j] [:] [:]  hear [hj] heard [h:d] heard [h:d] A;KH0BL [ej] [e] [e]  say [sej] said [sed] said [sed] 3>2>@8BL,    A:070BL [i:] [e] [e]  deal [di:l] dealt [delt] dealt [delt] @074020BL,   @0A?@545;OBL dream [dri:m] dreamt [dremt] dreameddreamt [dremt] dreamed2845BL A=K; <5GB0BL feel [fi:l] felt [felt] felt [felt] GC2AB2>20BL kneel [ni:l] knelt [nelt] knelt [nelt] ?@5:;>=OBL    :>;5=8 lean [li:n] leant [lent] leant [lent] =0:;>=OBLAO mean [mi:n] meant [ment] meant [ment] 7=0G8BL [aj] [T :] [T :]  buy [baj] bought [bT :t] bought [b T:t] ?>:C?0BL [i:] [e] [e]  leave [li:v] left [left] left [left] ?>:840BL [u:] [T ] [T]  lose [lu:z] lost [lTst] lost [lTst] B5@OBL [aj] [ou] [I]  drive [drajv] drove [drouv] driven ['drjvn] 25AB8, 5E0BL    (2 M:8?065,    02B><>18;5    8 B. 4.) ride [rajd] rode [roud] ridden [ 'rjdn] 5E0BL 25@E>< rise [rajz] rose [rouz] risen [ 'rjzn] ?>4=8<0BLAO,    2AB020BL write [rajt] 4 f\ wrote [rout] written ['rjtn] ?8A0BL [aj] flC [flaj] [u:] flew [flu:] [ou] flown [floun]  ;5B0BL [i:] freeze [fri:z] speak [spi:k] steal [sti:l] weave [wi:v] [ou] froze [frouz] spoke [spouk] stole [stoul] wove [wouv] [ou] frozen ['frouzn] spoken [ spoukn] stolen ['stouln] woven [ 'wouvn]  <>@>78BL @073>20@820BL :@0ABL B:0BL [ej] break [brejk] [ou] broke [brouk] [ou] broken ['broukn]  ;><0BL [e] forget [f'get] [ T] forgot [f'gTt] [ T] forgotten [f'gTtn]  701K20BL [[] swear [sw[] tear [t [Y] [T :] swore [sw T:] tore [tT :] [ T:] sworn [sw T:n] torn [tT :n]  :;OABLAO @20BL [aj] lie [laj] [ej] lay [lej] [ej] lain [Iejn]  ;560BL [aj] bite [bajt] hide [hajd] [j] bit [bjt] hid [hjd] [j] bitten ['bjtn] hidden ['hjdn]  :CA0BL(AO) ?@OB0BL(AO) [u:] choose [t+"u:z] [ou] chose [t+"ouz] [ou] chosen ['t+"ouzn]  2K18@0BL [i:] see [si:] [T:] saw [sT:] [i:] seen [si:n]  2845BL [i:] eat [i:t] [e] ate [et] [i:] eaten ['i:tn]  5ABL [j] forbid [fe'bjd] forgive [f'gjv] give [gjv] [ej] forbade [fo'bejd] forgave [f'gejv] gave [gejv] [j] forbidden [f'bidn] forgiven [f'gjvn] given ['gjvn]  70?@5I0BL 701K20BL 4020BL [ej] shake [+"ejk] take [teik] [u] shook [+"uk] took [tuk] [ej] shaken ['+"ejkn] taken ['tejkn]  B@OAB8 1@0BL [T:] fall [fT:l] [e] fell [fel] [T:] fallen [fT:ln]  ?040BL [T:] draw [drT:] [u:l drew [dru:] [T:] drawn [drT:n]  @8A>20BL[ou] blow [blou] grow [grou] know [nou] throw [rou] [u:] blew [blu:] grew [gru:] knew [nju:] threw [ru:] [ou] blown [bloun] grown [groun] known [noun] thrown [roun]  4CBL @0AB8 7=0BL 1@>A0BL [e] swell [swel] [e] swelled [sweld] [ou] swollen ['swouln]  =04C20BL(AO) [ej] make [mejk] [ej] made [mejd] [ej] made [mejd]  45;0BL [j] bring [brjK] think [iKk] [T:] brought [brT:t] thought [T:t] [T:] brought [brT:t] thought [T:t]  =5AB8 4C<0BL [i:] teach [ti:t+"] [T:] taught [tT:t] [T:] taught [tT:t]  CG8BL [] catch [kt+"] [T:] caught [kT:t] [T:] caught [kT:t]  E20B0BL [] stand [stnd] understand [nde'stnd] [u] stood [stud] understood [nd'stud] [u] stood [stud] understood [nd'stud]  AB>OBL ?>=8<0BL [d] build [bjId] lend [lend] mend [mend] spend [spend] send [send] [t] built [bjlt] lent [lent] ment [ment] spent [spent] sent [sent] [t] built [bjlt] lent [lent] ment [ment] spent [spent] sent [sent]  AB@>8BL >40;6820BL, A4020BL 2 0@5=4C G8=8BL B@0B8BL, @0AE>4>20BL ?>AK;0BL bet [bet] burst [b:st] bet [bet] burst [b:st] bet [bet] burst [b:st] 45@60BL ?0@8 ;>?0BLAO; 27@K20BLAO (> A=0@O45) cost [kTst] cost [kTst] cost [kTst] AB>8BL,   >1E>48BLAO cut [kt] cut [kt] cut [kt] @570BL hit [hjt] hit [hjt] hit [hjt] C40@OBL hurt [h:t] hurt [h:t] hurt [h:t] ?@8G8=OBL 1>;L    let [let] let [let] let [let] ?>72>;OBL, @07@5H0BL    put [put] put [put] put [put] :;0ABL, ?>;>68BL    shut [+"t] shut [+"t] shut [+"t] 70:@K20BL(AO) split [spljt] split [spljt] split [spljt] @0A:;04K20BL(AO) spread [spred] spread [spred] spread [spred] @0725@BK20BLAO upset [@'set] upset [p'set] upset [p'set] >?@>:84K20BL (AO)    @0AAB@0820BL,    =0@CH0BL (?>@O4>:)  Pronunciation rules of the suffix  ed The suffix -ed is pronounced in three ways: [id] when the verb stem ends in the dental consonants [d] or [t]: skate - skated chat - chatteddecide decided end - ended [d] when the stem ends in any voiced sound except [d]: live lived travel - travelledstay - stayed change changed [t] when the stem ends in any voiceless sound except [t]: talk - talked stop - stoppedwish wished place placed Spelling rules of the verb forms with the suffix ed 1) The letter -d is added to stems ending in -e: skate - skatedfree freed 2) In all the other cases the letters -ed are added: stay - stayedtalk talked The final consonant letter is doubled if it is single and follows a short vowel in a stressed syllable: nod - nodded stop- stopped stir - stirredpermit - permitted refer - referred compel- compelled The final - l is doubled even in an unstressed syllable (British English): travel - travelledcancel cancelled In some words the final -p is doubled in the same position: kidnap - kidnapped handicap handicappedworship worshipped The final -y is changed to -i if it is preceded by a consonant: cry criedreply replied Formation of participle I 7. Participle I of both regular and irregular verbs is composed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. In writing the following rules of spelling are observed: 1) if the stem ends in a mute -e, the -e is dropped before adding -ing: skate - skating 2) if the stem ends in a single consonant letter preceded by a short vowel of a stressed syllable, the consonant letter is doubled: stop - stopping nod - nodding stir stirringpermit permitting refer - referring compel compelling 3) if the stem ends in -l after a short vowel of an unstressed syllable, the -l is doubled (in British English): travel travellingcancel cancelling The same refers to some words ending in -p: kidnap - kidnapping handicap- handicappingworship worshipping verbs ending in -ie drop the final -e and change i into C before taking the suffix -ing: lie  lyingdie  dying Note: The same rules apply to the formation of the gerund. Semantic classifications of the verb 8. Semantic classifications of the verb may be undertaken from different standpoints. Grammatically important is the devision of verbs into the following classes: Actional verbs, which denote actions proper (do, make, go, read, etc.) and statal verbs, which denote state (be, exist, lie, sit, know, etc.) or relations (fit, belong, have, match, cost, etc.). The difference in their categorical meaning affects their morphological paradigm: statal and relational verbs have no passive voice (though some have forms coinciding with the passive voice as in The curtains and the carpet were matched). Also statal and relational verbs generally are not used in the continuous and perfect continuous tenses. Their occasional use in these tenses is always exceptional and results in the change of meaning. From the syntactic standpoint verbs may be subdivided into transivite (?5@5E>4=K5) and intransitive (=5?5@5E>4=K5) ones. Without the object the meaning of the transitive verb is incomplete or entirely different. Transitive verbs may be followed: a) by one direct object (monotransitive verbs); Jane is helping her sister. b) by a direct and an indirect objects (ditransitive verbs); Jane gave her sister an apple. c) by a prepositional object (prepositional transitive verbs): Jane looks after her sister. Intransitive verbs do not require any object for the completion of their meaning: The sun is rising. There are many verbs in English that can function as both transitive and intransitive. Tom is writing a letter. (transitive) Tom writes clearly. (intransitive) Who has broken the cup? (transitive) Glass breaks easily. (intransitive) Jane stood near the piano. (intransitive) Jane stood the vase on the piano. (transitive) The division of verbs into terminative and non-terminative depends on the aspectual characteristic in the lexical meaning of the verb which influences the use of aspect forms. Terminative verbs (?@545;L=K5 3;03>;K) besides their specific meaning contain the idea that the action must be fulfilled and come to an end, reaching some point where it has logically to stop. These are such verbs as sit down, come, fall, stop, begin, open, close, shut, die, bring, find, etc. Non-terminative, or durative verbs(=5?@545;L=K5 3;03>;K) imply that actions or states expressed by these verbs may go on indefinitely without reaching any logically necessary final point. These are such verbs as carry, run, walk, sleep, stand, sit, live, know, suppose, talk, speak, etc. The end, which is simply an interruption of these actions, may be shown only by means of some adverbial modifier: He slept till nine in the morning. The last subclass comprises verbs that can function as both terminative and non-terminative (verbs of double aspectual meaning). The difference is clear from the context: Can you see well? (non-terminative) I see nothing there. (terminative) The finite forms of the verb 9. The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by the speaker (the 2nd person) or someone/something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person). The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons. For the present indefinite tense* of the verb to be there are three contrasting forms: the 1st person singular, the 3rd person singular and the form for all persons plural: (I) am - (he) is - (we, you, they) are. * The other term used for indefinite tenses is "simple tenses". Accordingly there are the simple present, "the simple past", "the simple future". In the past indefinite tense it is only the verb to be that has one of these categories - the category of number, formed by the opposition of the singular and the plural forms: (I, he) was - (we, you, they) were. All the other verbs have the same form for all the persons, both singular and plural. In the future and future in the past tenses there are two opposing forms: the 1st person singular and plural and the other persons: (I, we) shall go - (he, you, they) will go; (I, we) should come - (he, you, they) would come. In colloquial style, however, no person distinctions are found either in the future or in the future in the past tenses. The only marker for the future tenses is ll used with all persons, both singular and plural: I'll do it; He'll do it; We'll do it, etc. The marker for the future in the past tenses is d, also used with all persons and numbers: I said Id come; He said hed come; We said wed come, etc. Historically ll is the shortened form of will, d is the shortened form of would. The categories of person and number, with the same restrictions, as those mentioned above, are naturally found in all analytical forms containing the present indefinite tense of the auxiliaries to be and to have, or the past indefinite tense of the auxiliary to be: (I) am reading - (he) is reading - (we, you, they) are reading; (I) am told - (he) is told - (we, you, they) are told; (he) has come - (I, we, you, they) have come; (he) has been told - (I, we, you, they) have been told; (he) has been reading - (I, we, you, they) have been reading. A more regular way of expressing the categories of person and number is the use of personal pronouns. They are indispensable when the finite verb forms in the indicative as well as the subjunctive moods have no markers of person or number distinctions. I stepped aside and they moved away. They had been walking along, side by side, and she had been talking very earnestly. If you were his own son, you could have all this. If she were not a housemaid, she might not feel it so keenly. The verb is always in the 3rd person singular if the subject of the predicate verb is expressed by a negative or indefinite pronoun, by an infinitive, a gerund or a clause: Nothing has happened. Somebody has come. To see him at last was a real pleasure. To shut that lid seems an easy task. Seeing is believing. Visiting their house again seems out of the question. What she has told me frightens me*. * For further details see on Agreement of the Subject and Predicate. The category of tense 10. The category of tense in English (as well as in Russian) expresses the relationship between the time of the action and the time of speaking. The time of speaking is designated as present time and is the starting point for the whole scale of time measuring. The time that follows the time of speaking is designated as future time; the time that precedes the time of speaking is designated as past time. Accordingly there are three tenses in English - the present tense, the future tense and the past tense which refer actions to present, future or past time. Besides these three tenses there is one more tense in English, the so-called future in the past. The peculiarity of this tense lies in the fact that the future is looked upon not from the point of view of the moment of speaking (the present) but from the point of view of some moment in the past. Each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect. Thus there are four present tense forms: the present indefinite, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present perfect continuous; four past tense forms: the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect and the past perfect continuous; four future tense forms: the future indefinite, the future continuous, the future perfect and the future perfect continuous; and four future in the past tense forms: the future in the past indefinite, the future in the past continuous, the future in the past perfect, the future in the past perfect continuous. The category of aspect 11. In general the category of aspect shows the way or manner in which an action is performed, that is whether the action is perfective (A>25@H5==>5), imperfective (=5A>25@H5==>5), momentary (<3=>25==>5, >4=>:@0B=>5), iterative (<=>3>:@0B=>5, ?>2B>@ONI55AO), inchoative (70G8=0B5;L=>5), durative (?@>4>;65==>5, 4;8B5;L=>5), etc. In English the category of aspect is constituted by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect. The opposition the continuous aspect <> the common aspect is actualized in the following contrasting pairs of forms: ContinuousCommonis speaking was speaking will be speaking has been speakingspeaks spoke will speak has spoken The forms in the left-hand column (whether taken in context, or treated by themselves) have a definite meaning: they describe an action as a concrete process going on continuously at a definite moment of time, or characteristic of a definite period of time (hence its name - the continuous aspect). The forms in the right-hand column, if treated by themselves, are devoid of any specific aspectual meaning. They denote the action as such, in a most general way, and can acquire a definite and more specified aspective meaning due to the lexical meaning of the verb and specific elements of the context in which they are used. Thus, for example, the verb form sang, when regarded out of context, has no specific aspectual characteristics, conveying only the idea of the action of singing with reference to the past. However when the same form is used in the context, it acquires the aspectual meaning conferred on it by that context. Compare the following sentences: When he was young he sang beautifully (?5; = C<5; ?5BL). He went over to the piano and sang two folk-songs (A?5;). He went over to the piano and sang (70?5;). While everybody was busy lighting a camp fire, he sang folk-songs (?5;). The fact that these forms may express different aspectual meanings according to the context, accounts for the term - the common aspect. 12. Whereas all verbs can be used in the common aspect, there are certain restrictions as to the use of the continuous aspect. Some verbs do not usually have the forms of the continuous aspect. They are referred to as statal verbs. The most common of them are the following: 1. Relational verbs have, be and some link verbs: become, remain, appear, seem, sound. However, both to be and to have can be used in the continuous aspect forms where to be has the meaning to act and to have has a meaning other than to possess. She is so foolish! I have three brothers.She is being so foolish (acting foolishly) today. I am having dinner (am dining) now. Other verbs having the same meaning of relation are not used in the continuous aspect forms: to apply to to belong to to compare (to) to concern to contain to cost to depend on to deserve to differ fromto exist to hold to interest to matter to measure to own to possess to remember to stand for to weigh 2. Verbs expressing sense perception, that is involuntary reactions of the senses: to feel (GC2AB2>20BL), to hear (A;KH0BL), to see (2845BL), to smell (GC2AB2>20BL 70?0E), to taste (GC2AB2>20BL 2:CA). However these verbs as well as other statal verbs may be sometimes used in continuous and perfect continuous forms, especially in informal English.* * These verbs will be considered in detail in 22. 3. Verbs expressing emotional state: to care, to detest, to envy, to fear, to hate, to hope, to like, to love, to prefer, to want, to wish. 4. Verbs expressing mental state: to assume, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to expect, to find, to forget, to imagine, to know, to mean, to mind, to notice, to perceive, to remember, to suggest, to suppose, to think, to understand. Note: Care should be taken to distinguish between some of these verbs denoting a mental state proper and the same verbs used in other meanings. In the latter case continuous aspect forms also occur. Compare, for example, the following pairs of sentences: I consider (believe) her to be a very good student. I expected (supposed, thought) youd agree with me. I feel (suppose) there is something wrong about him. I think (suppose) youre right.Im still considering (studying) all the pros and cons. I could not come for I was expecting (waiting for) a friend at the time. Im feeling quite cold. I am thinking over (studying) your offer.  I am forgetting things more and more now (beginning to forget). She is understanding grammar better now (beginning to understand). Moreover, all the verbs treated in 12 can occur in the continuous aspect when the ideas they denote are to be emphasized: Dont shout, I'am hearing you perfectly well! Why are you staring into the darkness? What are you seeing there? Are you still remaining my friend. You see, shes knowing too much. They dont know that inside I know what theyre like, and that all the time Im hating them. The category of perfect 13. The category of perfect is as fundamental to the English verb as the categories of tense and aspect, whereas it is quite alien to the Russian verb. The category of perfect is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to the non-perfect. The perfect forms denote action preceding certain moments of time in the present, past or future. The non-perfect forms denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the present, past or future. To see the difference between the two categories compare the following pairs of sentences containing non-perfect and perfect forms: PerfectNon-perfectI have seen the film, and I think it is dull. At last you are here! Ive been waiting for you so long! She had left by the 2nd of September. She had been sleeping for half an hour when the telephone woke her up. I shall have returned before you get the supper ready.I see you are tired. Whom are you waiting for? She left on the 2nd of September. When the fire began, everybody was sleeping. I shall return at 10. 14. The perfect forms belong either to the continuous or to the common aspect and as such they have specific semantic characteristics of either one or of the other. Thus the perfect continuous forms denote continuous actions taking place during a definite period of time preceding the present moment or some moment of time in the past or future. The moment of time in question may be either excluded or included in the period of time of the action, as in the following: Dont wake her up, she has only been sleeping for half an hour. (She is still sleeping at the moment of speaking.)Ive woken her up, she has been sleeping ever since dinner. (She is not sleeping at the moment of speaking.)She had been living in St.-Petersburg for 10 years when we met. (She was still living there at that moment of past time.)They had been living in St.-Petersburg for 10 years when they moved to N. (They were not living in St.- Petersburg any longer at that moment of past time.)He will have been working here for 20 years next autumn. (He will still be working here at that moment of the future.)He will have been working there for 5 years before he returns to our institute. (He will not already be working there any longer at that moment of the future.) The perfect forms of the common aspect are devoid of any specific aspect characteristics and acquire them only from the lexical meaning of the verb or out of the context in which they are used. Thus terminative verbs in the perfect forms of the common aspect express completeness of the action: She had shut the window and was going to sleep. The completed actions expressed by such forms may be momentary or iterative, as in: He had stumbled and fallen down before I could support him.He had stumbled and fallen down on his knees several times before he reached the bushes. Non-terminative verbs may express both completed and incompleted actions: She had spoken to all of them before she came to any conclusion.(?>3>2>@8;0)I have known him all my life. (7=0N)  They may also express iterative or durative actions: He had lived in many little towns before he settled in St.-Petersburg.She had lived here since the war. Thus the difference between the perfect and the perfect continuous forms is similar to the difference between the indefinite and the continuous non-perfect forms. Before passing on to a thorough study of all verb forms in detail it should be clearly understood that every one of them is a bearer of three grammatical categories, those of tense, perfect, and aspect, that is every form shows whether the action refers to the present, the past, the future or the future viewed from the past; whether it belongs to a certain moment of time within each of these time-divisions or precedes that moment, and whether it is treated as continuous or not. Table I Tense, aspect and perfect forms of the English verbs  Tense  Perfect AspectNon-Perfect Perfect Present CommonTakes Has takenContinuous Is takingHas been taking Past CommonTook Had taken Continuous was taking had been taking Future Common will take will have taken Continuous will be taking will have been taking Future in the Past Common would take would have taken Continuous would be taking would have been taking  Thus each tense is represented by four verb forms involving such categories as aspect and perfect. There are four present tense forms: the present indefinite (the simple present) the present continuous the present perfect the present perfect continuous four past tense forms: the past indefinite (the simple past) the past continuous the past perfect the past perfect continuous four future tense forms: the future indefinite (the simple future) the future continuous the future perfect the future perfect continuous four future in-the-past tenses: the future in-the-past indefinite (the simple future-in-the-past) the future in-the-past continuous the future in-the-past perfect the future in-the-past perfect continuous. Present tenses 15. All the present tenses (The present indefinite, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present perfect continuous) refer the actions they denote to the present, that is to, the time of speaking. The difference between them lies in the way they express the categories of aspect and perfect. The present indefinite (The simple present) Meaning. The present indefinite refers the action which it denotes to the present time in a broad sense. It bears no indication as to the manner in which the action is performed, that is whether it is perfective (complete) or imperfective (incomplete), momentary or durative (continuous), iterative or inchoative, etc. Any of these meanings can be imparted to the form by the lexical meaning of the verb or by the context. Neither does it bear any indication as to the precedence of the action it denotes to the moment of speaking. 16. Formation. Some of the forms of the present indefinite are synthetic (affirmative forms), some - analytic (interrogative and negative forms). Affirmative forms for all persons singular and plural except the 3rd person singular coincide with the infinitive stem: to speak - I speak, you speak, they speak. The 3rd person singular form is built from the same stem by means of the inflexion -s, -es: to speak [spi:k] - he speaks [spi:ksj; to land [lnd] - he lands [lndz]; to wish [wI+"] - he wishes [wI+"Iz]. As can be seen from the above examples, the pronunciation and spelling of the inflection of the 3rd person singular vary: Verb stems ending in vowels and voiced consonants (except voiced sibilants and affricates) take the inflection -s which is pronounced [z]: to see [si:] to play [plej] to stir [st] to come [km]he sees [si:z] he plays [plejz] he stirs [st:z] - he comes [kmz]. The 3rd person singular of the verb to say (says) is pronounced [sez]. In verb stems ending in the letter C and preceded by a consonant the letter C is replaced by the letters ie: to try [traj] to carry ['krj]- he tries [trajz] - he carries ['krjz]. The verbs to go and to do and their compounds (to forego, to overdo, etc.) take the inflexion [z] spelled as -es: to go [gou] - he goes [gouz], the verb to do (and its compounds) changes its root vowel: to do [du:] to overdo ['ouvdu]- he does [dz], - he overdoes ['ouvdz]. The 3rd person singular of the verb to have is has [hz]. Verb stems ending in voiceless consonants (except voiceless sibilants and affricates) take the inflexion -s pronounced [s]: to work [w:k] to hope [houp]- he works [w:ks] - he hopes [houps] 3. Verb stems ending in sibilants and affricates take either the inflexion -s or -es. Both are pronounced [jz]: -es if the final letters of the stem are -s, -sh, -ss, -x, -z, -zz, -ch, -tch: to push [pu+"] to pass [pa:s] to box [boks] to buzz [bz] to catch [kt+"]- he pushes ['pu+"jz] - he passes ['pa:sjz] - he boxes ['boksjz] - he buzzes ['bzjz] - he catches ['kt+"jz]; b) -s if the final letters of the stem are -se, -ce, -ze, -ge, -dge (i.e. sibilants and affricates plus the mute e): to please [pli:z] to place [plejs] to freeze [fri:z] to stage [stejd] to sledge [sled]- he pleases ['pli:zjz] - he places ['plejzjz] - he freezes ['fri:zjz] - he stages ['stejdjz] - he sledges ['sledjz]. 17. Interrogative and negative forms of the present indefinite are analytical and are built by means of the present indefinite of the auxiliary to do and the infinitive of the notional verb. Besides these there is one more type of forms, namely negative-interrogative forms, which has two possible patterns. The paradigm of the verb in the present indefinite AffirmativeInterrogativeNegativeI speak He (she, it) speaks We speak You speak They speakDo I speak? Does he (she, it) speak? Do we speak? Do you speak? Do they speak?I do not (dont) speak He (she, it) does not (doesnt) speak We do not (dont) speak You do not (dont) speak They do not (dont) speak Negative-interrogative a)Do I not speak? Does he (she, it) not speak? Do we not speak? Do you not speak? Do they not speak? b)Dont I speak? Doesnt he (she, it) speak? Dont we speak? Dont you speak? Dont they speak?  Note: The auxiliary to do can occur in the affirmative form as well, if special emphasis is required. In this case the auxiliary is always stressed: Ask him again, he does know what it was. She does help me so much! 18. There are some verbs that form their present indefinite in a different way. These are: 1) The verb to be, which has synthetic forms not only for affirmative, but also for interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative structures. Besides, it distinguishes the category of number and has in the singular the category of person*. * See the table on p. 339. 2) The verb to have when meaning to possess also builds its interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms synthetically. When the verb to have has a modal meaning or when it is used as part of a phrase verb it makes its interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms in the ordinary way, that is with the auxiliary to do: When do you have to get up in order to catch the first morning train? She does not have any lunch at home. 3) All the modal verbs do not take the inflexion -s in the 3rd person singular. They form their interrogative and negative forms without the auxiliary to do. 19. The present indefinite. 1. To state facts in the present. I live in St.-Petersburg. Most dogs bark. Its a long way to Tipperary. 2. To state general rules or laws of nature, that is to show that something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future. It snows in winter. Snow melts at 0C. Two plus two makes four. 3. To denote habitual actions or everyday activity. They get up at 8. On Sundays we stay at home. Do you often go to the dancing hall? 4. To denote actions and states continuing at the moment of speaking (with statal and relational verbs, verbs of sense and mental perception.) Who does the car belong to? I do not see what you are doing. Now I hear you perfectly well. I do not understand you at all. 5. To express declarations, announcements, etc. referring to the moment of speaking. I declare the meeting open. I agree to your proposal. I offer you my help. 6. To denote a succession of action going on at the moment of speaking. Now watch me closely: I take a match, light it, put it into the glass and ... oh, nothing happens! 7. To denote future actions. Mostly with verbs of motion (to go, to come, to start, to leave, to return, to arrive, to sail and some other verbs), usually if the actions denote a settled plan and the future time is indicated: I go to Moscow next week. They start on Sunday. She leaves for England in two months. What do you do next Sunday? In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, as soon as, as long as, before, after, while, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided, etc.: When she comes, ring me up, please. Do it as soon as you are through with your duties. I promise not to tell her anything if you help me to get out of here. However in object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if it is the future indefinite that is used to denote future actions: I dont know when she will come. Im not sure if she will come at all. 8. To denote past actions: a) in newspaper headlines, in the outlines of novels, plays., films, etc.: Dog Saves Its Master. Students Say No to New Weapon. Then Fleur meets Little Jon. They fall in love with each other. b) in narratives or stories to express past actions more vividly (the so-called historic present): It was all so unexpected. You see, I came home late last night, turned on the light and - whom do you think I see? Jack, old Jack, sleeping in the chair. I give a cry, rush to him and shake him by the shoulder. 9. To denote completed actions with the meaning of the present perfect (with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told). I forget your telephone number. I hear you are leaving for England? I am told she returned from France last week. The present continuous 20. Meaning. The present continuous* denotes an action which is in progress at the moment of speaking. * Nowadays it is sometimes called "the present progressive". 21. Formation. All the forms of the present continuous are analytic. They are formed by means of the present indefinite of the auxiliary to be and participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the corresponding form of the auxiliary to be is placed before the subject and participle I follows it. In the negative the negation not is placed after the auxiliary. The paradigm of the verb in the present continuous AffirmativeInterrogativeNegative I am speaking He (she, it) is speaking We are speaking You are speaking They are speaking Am I speaking? Is he (she, it) speaking? Are we speaking? Are you speaking? Are they speaking? I am not (Im not) speaking He (she, it) is not (isnt) speaking We are not (arent) speaking You are not (arent) speaking They are not (arent) speaking Negative-interrogative a)Am I not speaking? Is he (she, it) not speaking? Are we not speaking? Are you not speaking? Are they not speaking?b)Arent I speaking? Isnt he (she, it) speaking? Arent we speaking? Arent you speaking? Arent they speaking? In spoken English contractions are commonly used (Im, hes, its, were, etc.). A reduced negative for the first person singular is Im not, but is replaced by arent in the negative - interrogative. 22. The present continuous is used with all actional and some statal verbs (with the reservations destribed below): 1. To denote continuous actions going on at the moment of speaking. Look, how happily they are playing! Dont bother him, hes working. Listen! The telephone is ringing. Go and answer it. - Can I see Mary? - You must wait a little while, she is having breakfast. The present indefinite, not the present continuous, is used to denote actions which though going on at the moment of speaking, are important as simple facts, rather than as actions in progress. Why dont you answer? Why dont you write? Where is your pen? Stop talking! Why dont you listen? If two simultaneous actions are in progress at the moment of speaking, three variants are possible: a) one action is expressed by the verb in the present indefinite, the other - by the present continuous: Do you hear what I am saying! b) both the actions are expressed by verbs in the present continuous: Are you listening to what I am saying? At home he is always sleeping while I am doing chores. c) both the actions are expressed by verbs in the present indefinite: Several students watch carefully while he writes it on the board. The use of the present indefinite instead of the present continuous is due to the semantic peculiarities of the verb. The present continuous is not generally used with some verbs - the verbs of sense perception, of mental or emotional state and with relational verbs. Still exceptions may occur with these verbs too. With the verbs of sense perception the use of the tense form is closely connected with what kind of perception is meant - voluntary (deliberate) or involuntary. In case these verbs denote a voluntary action: to listen (A;CH0BL), to look (A<>B@5BL) or if they may denote both an involuntary and a voluntary action, such as: to feel (>IC?K20BL), to smell (=NE0BL), to taste (?@>1>20BL =0 2:CA), they can occur in continuous forms. Voluntary actionsInvoluntary actions Why are you not listening? Why are you looking at me like that? The man must be blind, he is feeling his way with a stick. Say it again, I dont hear you. Can you see me now? Take care! I feel the walls shaking. In the same way verbs of mental and emotional states can acquire a different meaning and occur in the present continuous and other continuous forms. I consider (=believe) her to be a very good student. I think (suppose) you are right.Im still considering (studying) all the pros and cons. Im thinking over (studying) your offer. In some cases it is not so much a change of meaning as a change in the quality or intensity of the idea expressed by the verb that makes it possible to use the continuous form. I am forgetting things more and more now. She is understanding grammar better now. Dont shout, I'm hearing you perfectly well. What are you seeling there in this complete darkness. You see, she is knowing too mucht. All this time I'm hating them. I am feeling quite all right. The relational verbs (belong, cost, etc.) are not used in the continuous form. 2. To denote actions characteristic of a certain period of present time, the moment of speaking included. As a rule these actions are temporary. They are spending their holidays at the sea-side this summer. Your behaviour is killing your wife. It is autumn now. The birds are flocking together. To denote (for the sake of emphasis) actions in progress referring to all or any time, the moment of speaking included. In this case the adverbials ever, for ever, constantly, always are obligatory. Our solar system together with the Milky Way is constantly moving towards Vega. The Volga is for ever pouring its waters into the Caspian Sea. Mankind is always developing its mental faculties. 4. To denote actions characteristic of a certain person within more or less long periods of present time, the moment of speaking included and provoking certain emotions in the speaker (inpatience, irritation, disapproval, praise, etc.). Sentences with such forms are always emotionally coloured. Oh, I have no patience with you. Why are you always losing your things? Though she is only ten, she is very kind-hearted, she is always pitying everybody. In such sentences the adverbials always or constantly are also obligatory. 5. To denote future actions. a) With verbs of motion to arrive, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to sail, to start and some others, usually the actions are only intended or planned. The future time is usually indicated by some adverbials: She is leaving tomorrow. The boat is sailing next week. He is returning on Monday. What are you doing tomorrow? Though the present continuous of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote an intention or plan, with some verbs the meaning is that of apprehention or presentiment. Hes going to get ill. The flowers are going to wither. It is going to snow. Hes going to be hanged. b) In adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless, etc: Ill ring you up at 2, while you are having your break. If he is working when I come, dont bother him, Ill wait. As follows from the items enumerated above, the present continuous cannot occur in the context describing a succession of actions referring to the present. In such cases the present indefinite is used: He comes up to the piano, opens the lid, and begins to play the first tune. If several actions in a narrative have the form of the present continuous, it indicates that they are all simultaneous (and usually performed by different persons): The boys are playing football on the lawn, Nell is reading in her room, and Father is having his rest. In all its uses the present continuous is rendered in Russian by means of the present tense of the imperfective aspect. The present perfect 23. Meaning. The present perfect form denotes the action preceding the moment of speaking, though it is connected with it either directly or indirectly, that is: a) it continues up to the moment of speaking or b) takes place within a period of time before and including the moment of speaking, so it is relevant to the moment of speaking through its effect or virtually through its continuation at the moment of speaking. In the first case it is called the exclusive present perfect (the moment of speaking is excluded), in the second - the inclusive present perfect (the moment of speaking is included). Formation. The present perfect is formed analytically, by means of the auxiliary to have in the present indefinite and participle II of the notional verb.* * For the rules of the formation of participle II see 5-6. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of to have are used, participle II follows them. The paradigm of the verb in the present perfect AffirmativeInterrogativeNegative I have spoken He (she, it) has spoken We have spoken You have spoken They have spoken Have I spoken? Has he (she, it) spoken? Have we spoken? Have you spoken? Have they spoken? I have not (havent) spoken He (she, it) has not (hasnt) spoken We have not (havent) spoken You have not (havent) spoken They have not (havent) spoken Negative-interrogative a)Have I not spoken? Has he (she, it) not spoken? Have we not spoken? Have you not spoken? Have they not spoken?b)Havent I spoken? Hasnt he (she, it) spoken? Havent we spoken? Havent you spoken? Havent they spoken? 24. In all its uses the present perfect directly or indirectly refers actions to the moment of speaking. This connection with the moment of speaking predetermines its use; the present perfect is found in conversations and communications dealing with the state of things in the present and is never found in narratives referring to the past. The present perfect is used: 1. When the speaker means that he is interested in the mere fact that the action took place, but not in the time when it took place, nor in the circumstances. The time of the action is either not indicated at all, or is indicated only vaguely, by means of adverbs of indefinite time (yet, already, just, lately, recently, of late, ever, never, always, etc.). I dont know what hes going to do, I havent seen him. Has Mother returned? I havent read the letter yet. Why are you so hard on him? What has he done? Lets go, it has already stopped raining. Ive never seen him in this play. 2. When the speaker means that, though the action is over, the period of time within which it was performed is not yet over at the moment of speaking (with the words today, this week, this year, etc.). Ive seen her today. Shes returned from England this week. Ive had a splitting headache this morning. If the period of time is over or the action refers to some particular moment of time within that period the past indefinite, not the present perfect is used. I had a bad headache this morning (said in the afternoon, in the evening, etc.). She was at my party this month (at the time when the party was given). In such cases (items 1 and 2) the exclusive present perfect is rendered in Russian by the past tense. 3. The present perfect is also used to denote actions still in progress, (the inclusive present perfect) which began before the moment of speaking and go on up to that moment or into it. In this case either the starting point of the action is specified (by means of the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since, or an adverbial clause with the conjunction since), or the period during which it continued (by various adverbs or phrases with for). It is thus used in the following cases: with statal verbs which do not normally take continuous forms: We met by chance last year, and I havent seen her since. Ive been here since 8. I love you. Ive loved you ever since we met. Ive known you all my life. I havent seen you for ages. b) with some actional (durative) verbs in which case the present perfect continuous is also possible. The difference between the two forms lies in the following: in the case of the present perfect the logical stress is laid rather on the fact than on the process, whereas in the case of the present perfect continuous it is the process that is important. Ive worked here since 1960. He has played football for five years already. In such cases the inclusive present perfect is rendered in Russian by the present tense. 4. The present perfect is also used in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the corresponding conjunctions to denote a future action taking place before a certain moment in the future. Ill stay with you until youve finished everything. Wait till Ive written the notice. Sometimes adverbials of place and objects expressed by words describing situations may serve in an oblique way as past time markers, connecting the activities not only with places and situations, but also with the time when the actions took place, accordingly the past indefinite is used. Did you meet him in London? (when you were in London) Did you like his singing? (when he sang) The same is true of special questions beginning with where: Where did you see him? Where did you buy this hat? Note 1: In spesial questions with when only the past indefinite is possible, though the answer can be either in the past indefinite or in the present perfect depending on the actual state of affairs: - When did he come?- He came yesterday. - He has just come. Note 2: The present perfect, not the past indefinite is used with the verb to be in the sense of to go, to visit even though the adverbials of place are used: Have you been to London? She says shes been to Paris three times. The meaning of such statements is was there at a certain time, but is there no longer.  Although the time of the actions denoted by the present perfect is not specified, it is generally understood as more or less recent, not long past. 25. The ways of translating the present perfect into Russian vary due to the peculiarities of its time orientation and the vagueness of its aspective meaning. It can therefore be translated into Russian either by the past tense (if it is exclusive present perfect) or by the present tense (if it is inclusive present perfect). The latter applies to statal verbs and some actional durative verbs. She has gone home.=0 C65 CH;0 4><>9. (The past tense, perfective.) The red ballon has burst. @0A=K9 H0@8: ;>?=C;. (The past tense, perfective, momentary.) He has hit me twice. = C40@8; <5=O 420 @070. (The past tense, perfective, iterative.) I ve already seen him. / 53> C65 2845;. (The past tense, imperfective.) She has seen the film three times. =0 A<>B@5;0 MB>B D8;L< B@8 @070. (The past tense, imperfective, iterative.) They ve lived here for seven years. =8 682CB 745AL A5<L ;5B. I ve known her since 1975. / 7=0N 55 A 1975 3>40. (The present tense, inaperfective, durative.) The present perfect continuous 26. Formation. The present perfect continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to be in the present perfect (have/has been) plus participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the first auxiliary (have/has) comes before the subject, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of the first auxiliary (have) are used, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow them. The paradigm of the verb in the present perfect continuous Affirmative InterrogativeI have been speaking He (she, it) has been speaking We have been speaking You have been speaking They have been speakingHave I been speaking? Has he (she, it) been speaking? Have we been speaking? Have you been speaking? Have they been speaking? NegativeContracted negative I have not been speaking He (she, it) has not been speaking We have not been speaking You have not been speaking They have not been speakingI havent been speaking He (she, it) hasnt been speaking We havent been speaking You havent been speaking They havent been speaking Negative-interrogative a)Have I not been speaking? Has he (she, it) not been speaking? Have we not been speaking? Have you not been speaking? Have they not been speaking?b)Havent I been speaking? Hasnt he (she, it) been speaking? Havent we been speaking? Havent you been speaking? Havent they been speaking? The present perfect continuous is used mainly in conversation. 27. The present perfect continuous is used with actional verbs to denote: 1. Actions in progress which begin at a certain moment in the past and continue into the present. In this case either the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is usually specified. Ive been writing since morning, and so Ill soon stop. Theyve been living here since 1970. Now they are going to move to N. It has been raining ever since midnight, and it is still drizzling. Shes a fourth year student, so shes been learning English for at least 3 years already. All these forms denoting actions continuing into the present (the so-called present perfect continuous inclusive) are translated into Russian by the present tense, imperfective (in the sentences above: ?8HC, 682CB, 4>64L 845B, CG8B). 2. Actions in progress which begin in the past and continue up to the moment of speaking or till just before it. It is the present perfect continuous exclusive. Oh, here you are at last! Ive been waiting for you all day! It has been snowing since morning, but now it has stopped. You look so sad. Have you been crying? It has been raining for at least two hours, but now the wind has driven the clouds away. 3. Actions in progress that both begin and end at some indeterminate time before the moment of speaking, though connected with it through their importance for the present. My brother has been using my bicycle and has got the tyre punctured. I have been thinking over your offer, but still cant tell you anything definite. I hear she has been calling on you again? The forms denoting actions that are over by the moment of speaking (the so-called present perfect continuous exclusive) are translated into Russian by means of the past tense, imperfective (in the sentences in items 2 and 3 they are: 640;, A=53 H5;, ?;0:0;0, 4>64L H5;, :0B0;AO, >14C<K20;, ?@8E>48;0). 4. Future actions in progress before a certain moment in the future (in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition). He will get accustomed to the surroundings after he has been staying here for a week or two. 28. As is seen from above, the present perfect continuous cannot be used to denote a succession of actions and therefore cannot be used to describe the development of events. If two actions denoted by the present perfect continuous happen to come together it only means that they are simultaneous and are usually performed by two different persons: I have been living here for two months while they have been travelling all over Europe. Now they are coming back, and Ill soon move back to my own place. Past tenses 29. All the past tenses (the past indefinite, the past continuous, the past perfect, the past perfect continuous) refer the actions they denote to the past. The difference between them lies in the way they represent the I categories of aspect and perfect. Owing to their past time reference all of them are used both in the written language in narrative and description, and in conversation, especially the past indefinite. The past indefinite (The simple past) 30. Formation. The affirmative forms of the past indefinite are synthetic, the interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms are analytic. Affirmative (synthetic) forms are represented by the second of the basic verb forms. Interrogative forms are built by means of the auxiliary to do in the past indefinite (did), which is placed before the subject, and the infinitive stem of the notional verb, which follows the subject. Negative forms are built by means of the negative form of the auxiliary, which has two varieties: a) didnt (used in the spoken language) and b) did not (used in the written language) and the infinitive of the notional verb that follows it. The paradigm of the verb in the past indefinite AffirmativeInterrogative I He (she, it) We You They spoke (played) DidI he (she, it) we you they  speak (play?) Negative I He (she, it) We You They did not (didnt) speak (play)  Negative-interrogative a) DidI he (she, it) we you they Not speak? (play?)b) DidntI he (she, it) we you they speak? (play?)  The auxiliary did also occurs in affirmative forms in cases when the speaker wishes to emphasize his statement, as in: But I assure you, he did tell me of it himself. Actually, I did see him once last week. There are a few verbs which form their past indefinite differently from the way described above. These are: The verb to be, which has synthetic forms not only in the affirmative, but also in the interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative. It also distinguishes the category of number. The interrogative is formed by placing the verb before the subject. The verb to have, which also has synthetic forms for all structures. When having meanings other than possess or when used as part of a phrasal verb (to have a look), to have forms its interrogative and negative in the ordinary way with the auxiliary to do. 31. The past indefinite refers actions to past time quite cut off from the present, that is, these actions are in no way connected with the present).* The past indefinite can therefore be used only in contexts relating to the past. The past reference of the context can be shown: * This is very important for distinguishing the situations in which either only the past indefinite or only the present perfect are to be used. a) by various adverbials of time pointing to the past, for example, yesterday, the day before yesterday, last (that) Saturday (Sunday), etc., last (that) week (month, year), an hour ago (and other adverbials with ago), in 1970, on the 1st of September, and many others denoting certain moments and periods of time already past. He left yesterday. They married in 1975. She returned two hours ago. I saw them last Monday. That night nobody slept. b) by some other past actions (denoted by the verb in the past indefinite or past continuous). He came when I was already at home. They started when the sun was rising. Thus the very fact that the past indefinite is used in a narrative or in a single sentence is generally an indication that some past time not connected with the present is referred to. 32. The past indefinite is the verb form most frequently used; its range of application is immense, especially in all kinds of narratives. The past indefinite is used: To state simple facts in the past. The house stood on the hill. She was beautiful. I did not know who the man was. I did not hear your question. I did not see you at the theatre. What did you say? The past indefinite, never the present perfect, is used in questions beginning with when, even though no indication of past time is made, because when implies a certain moment in the past. The answer can be either in the past indefinite or in the present perfect, depending on the situation: When did you see him? - I saw him two days ago. - I have just seen him. Likewise, the past indefinite, not the present perfect, is used in questions beginning with where because in such questions the reference to some past moment is implied: Where did you buy that hat? The implication is: when you were at the place where the action was performed. 2. To denote habitual actions in the past. All summer I got up at 7. On Sunday evening he took her to the pictures. He usually took the first morning train. Note: Besides the past indefinite there are other ways of expressing habitual actions in the past: a) by means of the form used to + infinitive: Some years ago he used to call on me, now he never does. The negative construction of used to is formed in one of two ways: didnt used to and didnt use to. She didnt use to knit in the evenings. The interrogative construction is: did (he) used to? or did (he) use to...? Did she used to write her articles at night? Did he use to do it? b) The other way to express habitual actions is by means of the verb would + infinitive stem. But unlike used to, would always conveys an additional modal colouring of will, insistance, perseverance. This used to be my mothers room, and I would sit there for hours. 3. To denote a succession of past actions. He got up, put on his hat, and left. The car stopped, the door opened, and a very pretty girl got out of it. 4. To denote actions in progress at a certain moment in the past, with verbs that cannot be used in continuous forms. He was not listening but still heard what they were speaking about. At that time he was on the watch. 5. To denote future actions in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition depending on principal clauses with the predicate verb in a past tense. She said she would come when the film was over. She said she would do it if nothing unexpected happened. 33. The ways of rendering the past indefinite in Russian are varied, owing to its aspective vagueness. Depending on the lexical meaning of the verb and on the context, it can be translated by Russian verbs in the past tense of both perfective and imperfective aspects with all possible shades of their meanings. In the morning I wrote two letters.#B@>< O =0?8A0; 420 ?8AL<0. (A perfective (completed) action.) I got up from my chair and bowed./ 2AB0; 8 ?>:;>=8;AO. (Two perfective (completed) momentary actions.) He breathed hard and stopped every few minutes.= BO65;> 4KH0; 8 >AB0=02;820;AO :064K5 =5A:>;L:> <8=CB. (Imperfective (incompleted) and iterative actions.) She lay on the sofa reading 0 detective story.=0 ;560;0 =0 4820=5, G8B0O 45B5:B82. (Imperfective, durative action.) On hearing it he laughed.#A;KH02 MB>, >= 70A<5O;AO. (A perfective, inchoative action.) The past continuous 34. Formation. The past continuous is formed analytically by the auxiliary verb to be in the past indefinite and participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the auxiliary is placed before the subject and participle I follows the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of to be are employed, and participle I follows them. The paradigm of the verb in the past continuous AffirmativeInterrogative I He (she, it) was speakingWasI he (she, it)speaking? We You They were speaking Werewe you they speaking? Negative I He (she it)was not (wasnt) speaking We You They were not (weren't) speaking  Negative-interrogative a)WasI He (she, it)not speaking?b)WasntI He (she, it)speaking?  Werewe you they not speaking? Weren'twe you they speaking? 35. The past continuous is used mostly in narrative although it may occur in conversation as well. The past continuous is used with all actional verbs and some statal verbs: 1. To denote a continuous action in progress at a certain moment in the past. At 10 it was still raining. When I called him up, he was still having breakfast. The fire began at midnight when everybody was sleeping. At that time she was already packing up. In these examples the moment of time is specified directly, by means of adverbials of time or indirectly by some other past action mentioned in the same sentence. The moment of time at which the action is in progress can also be shown by the previous context, or understood from the situation: He did not answer. His lips were trembling. I stood motionless, as if glued to the ground. The enormous black bull was galloping towards me at full speed. I told him that Ralph was staying at the Three Boars. 2. To denote a continuous action in progress during a certain period of time in the past, marked by adverbials - prepositional phrases (from ... till, from ... to) or adverbs (all day long, the whole night, etc.) We were quarrelling all day long yesterday. She says she was washing from six till eight. When actional durative verbs take the form of the past continuous the actions thus described do not actually differ from those in the form of the past indefinite, as both denote continuous actions in progress at some moment of time in the past: When I saw him, he was standing by the door. When I saw him he stood by the door. Both examples may refer to the same situation. The difference between the two is that the past indefinite lays stress on the fact, while the past continuous emphasizes the process, thus presenting the action more vividly. However in a complex sentence with a subordinate adverbial clause of time if the predicate verbs both in the principal and in the subordinate clauses express simultaneous continuous actions in progress it is usual (though not obligatory) to use the past indefinite in both the clauses: While I ate and drank, I looked up the register. She looked all the while at him as she spoke in her slow, deep voice. But, the past continuous is rather frequent in adverbial clauses, introduced by the conjunction while, as, when, as long as, etc.: While they were talking, the boy waited outside. As he was climbing up, he all the while looked at the birds soaring high above him. When I was working there, I played in the local jazz band. She stayed in the car while I was talking to the nurse. Sometimes the past continuous is found in the principal clause, while the past indefinite is in the subordinate: They were talking inside while he stood watching the path. The verbs to stand, to sit, to lie expressing actions in progress at a certain moment, or during a certain period of time in the past are commonly used in the past indefinite, if they are followed by participle I. They stood by the door, talking loudly. They sat beside their lorry, drinking soda water and eating sardines from a tin. He lay in bed trying to forget what had happened. However, the past continuous is also possible. She was standing, staring at the open letter in her hand. 3. The past continuous is sometimes used to denote actions characteristic of certain persons in the past. In such sentences the adverbials always and constantly are generally included. She had rather poor health and was constantly complaining of headaches. As I remember her she was always fussing over something. He seemed very absent-minded, he was constantly loosing things. 4. To denote future actions viewed from the past, with verbs of motion (to arrive, to come, to go, to leave, to return, etc.), usually if the action is planned or expected. In this case adverbials of future time are generally used, or the future reference of the verb is clear from the context or situation: She said she was leaving in a week. Then I understood that they were not returning either that year or the next. The ship was sailing in a few hours. If no future reference of the action is evident, it implies that though the action was planned, it was not and will not be carried out: Listen, I said. Ive brought a little cousin of mine along. Joanna was coming up too but was prevented. I said quickly: She was coming to tea yesterday afternoon. (was due to come, but did not). 36. As follows from the meaning of the past continuous and from its uses described above, it cannot denote a succession of past actions. Two or more verbs having the form of the past continuous, whether used in the same or in adjoining sentences, always denote simultaneous actions performed by different persons or non-persons: Nash made periodic appearances in the town but what he was doing and what traps the police were setting, I had no idea. It was a glorious day. The sun was shining high in the sky. There was no wind. The larks were singing in the blue depth. Only far away, over the horizon, soft milky clouds were moving placidly towards the east. In all its uses the past continuous is translated into Russian by means of the past tense of the imperfective aspect. The past perfect 37. Formation. The past perfect is formed analytically by the auxiliary to have in the past indefinite and participle II of the notional verb. The interrogative and negative forms and built in the way usual for all analytic forms. The paradigm of the verb in the past perfect  38. In all its uses the past perfect denotes actions the beginning of which (always) and the end (usually) precede a certain moment of time in the past. The prepast period of time to which the actions in the past perfect refer is unlimited, that is, they may take place either immediately before some moment in the past or in the very remote past. This tense is used with both actional and statal verbs. Its sphere of application is mainly that of narratives, though it is also used in conversation. The past perfect is used: 1. To denote an action of which both the beginning and the end precede some moment of time in the past. This moment can be specified by an adverbial of time, or by another action, or else by the situation. What should be borne in mind is that the use of the past perfect form is in itself a sufficient indication of the precedence of the denoted action to some moment in the past which therefore need not be specified. He had finished his work by then. I knew him a little: we had met in Rome a year before. She felt wretched. She had not slept for two nights. I opened the window. The rain had stopped, but the sharp east wind was still blowing. After everybody had left, she rushed to her room and began packing hurriedly. 2. To denote an action in progress which began before a certain moment of time in the past and went on up to that moment and sometimes into it. In such cases either the starting point of the action is specified (by means of the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since or an adverbial clause introduced by the conjunction since), or the period during which the action was in progress (by various adverbials): a) with statal verbs, which do not normally allow of continuous forms: He had been away for some months before his first letter came. They had thought it over and over again since that dinner. I could not believe the rumour. I had known him for a good many years. b) with some actional durative verbs (in the similar way as with the past perfect continuous). When we first met she had lived in the country for two years and was quite happy. And thus he had sat in his chair till the clock in the hall chimed midnight. Since her mother's death she had slept in the comer room. In this case the past perfect continuous can also be used, though with a slight difference of meaning: while the past perfect lays the stress on the mere fact that the action took place, the past perfect continuous accentuates the duration of the action. 3. To denote a succession of past actions belonging to the time preceding the narrative as a whole, thus describing a succession of events in the prepast time. I gave a slight shiver. In front of me was a neat square of grass and a path and the low gate. Someone had opened the gate, had walked very correctly and quietly up to the house, and had pushed a letter through the letter-box. 39. The ways of rendering the past perfect in Russian are varied, owing to its aspective meaning of the verb or the context. It can be translated by Russian verbs in the past tense of both perfective and imperfective aspects with all possible shades of their meaning. These are mostly supported by lexical means: I had admitted everything before./ 2A5 MB> ?@87=0; 5I5 @0=LH5. (A perfective (completed) action.) 5 had banged his fist on the table two or three times before they turned to him.= ABC:=C; :C;0:>< ?> AB>;C 420 8;8 B@8 @070, ?@5645 G5< >=8 >15@=C;8AL. (A perfective, iterative action.) Of late years I had sometimes found him at parties. ?>A;54=85 3>4K O 8=>340 2AB@5G0; 53> =0 25G5@0E. (An imperfective, iterative action.) He had looked scared during the prolonged examination.> 2@5<O MB>3> 70BO=C2H53>AO M:70<5=0 >= :070;AO A>2A5< 8A?C30==K<. (An imperfective, durative action.) The past perfect continuous 40. Formation. The past perfect continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to be in the past perfect (had been) and participle 1 of the notional verb. In the interrogative the first auxiliary (had) comes before the subject, and the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of the first auxiliary (had) are used, the second auxiliary (been) and participle I follow the negation. In the negative-interrogative the corresponding negative-interrogative forms of the first auxiliary are used first, the second auxiliary and participle I follow the subject. The paradigm of the verb in the past perfect continuous AffirmativeInterrogative I He (she, it) We You They had been speaking Had I he (she, it) we you they been speaking?  Negative I He (she, it) We You They had not (hadnt) been speaking  Negative interrogative a) Had I he (she, it) we you they not been speaking?b) Hadnt I he (she, it) we you they been speaking?  41. The past perfect continuous denotes an action which began before a given moment in the past, continued for a certain period of time up to that moment and possibly still continued at that past moment. The moment of time in the past before which the action begins is usually indicated by other past actions in the past indefinite or, rather rarely, by the past continuous. Sometimes it is indicated directly by adverbials (by that time, by the 1st of August, etc.). The past perfect continuous is used with actional verbs to denote: 1. Actions in progress that began before a certain moment of time in the past and continued up to that moment, but not into it. As a rule no indications of time are present: the exact time of the beginning of the action is more or less clear from the situation, while the end, closely precedes the given moment of past time (the exclusive past perfect continuous). Dick, who had been reading aloud Pits letter, suddenly stopped. I had been feeling very tired, but now I grew alert. They had been walking rapidly and now they were approaching the spot. Her eyes were red. I saw she had been crying. 2. Actions in progress that began before a certain moment of time in the past and continued into it. In this case either the starting point of the action or its duration is indicated (the inclusive past perfect continuous). Ever since his return he had been losing strength and flesh. She had been acting for a long time without a rest and she badly needed one. Even now he could not stop, though he had been running all the way from the village. The past perfect continuous is usually rendered in Russian by the past tense, imperfective. Future tenses 42. All the future tenses (the future indefinite (the simple future), the future continuous, the future perfect, the future perfect continuous) refer the actions they denote to the future. The difference between them is due to their different relation to the categories of aspect and perfect. Their specific time reference limits their use in comparison with the present and the past tenses. Among the future tenses the future indefinite is the most frequently used, while the use of the future continuous and the future perfect is rather limited, because the situations to which they are applicable seldom arise. As to the future perfect continuous, it is hardly ever used. The future indefinite 43. Formation. The future indefinite is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary verb shall for the first person singular or plural and will for the second and third person singular or plural and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. The modern tendency is to use will for all the persons*. * In modern spoken English no person distinctions are found in future tenses. The only marker for any future tense is ll used for all persons singular and plural (Ill speak, Hell speak). Historically ll is the contracted form of will. The paradigm of the verb in the future indefinite AffirmativeInterrogative I shall speak He (she, it) will speak We shall speak You will speak They will speak (Ill speak)Shall I speak? Will he (she, it) speak? Shall we speak? Will you speak? Will they speak? Negative I shall not (shant) speak He (she, it) will not (wont) speak We shall not (shant) speak You will not (wont) speak They will not (wont) speak Negative-interrogative a)Shall I not speak? Will he (she, it) not speak? Shall we not speak? Will you not speak? Will they not speak?b)Shant I speak? Wont be (she, it) speak? Shant we speak? Wont you speak? Wont they speak? 44. The future indefinite is used to denote: Simple facts in the future. He will return tomorrow. I shant stay with them. It will be cold in the evening. 2. A succession of actions in the future. Hell ring you up and tell you everything. Ill take her up to town, well do some shopping, and have lunch, so we shall be back in late afternoon. 3. Habitual actions in the future. So Ill see you often in winter? He will stay with us as often as possible. I hope you will write regularly. The future indefinite is not used in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the connectives when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as, if, unless, in case (that), on condition that, provided, etc. In such clauses the present indefinite tense is used instead: They will wait till it grows dark. When she comes, ask her to type this letter. Unless youre careful, you'll get into trouble. Care should be taken to distinguish between the adverbial clauses of time or condition and object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if, in the case of object clauses any tense required by the sense can be used: I dont know when Ill come again. Ask him if hell do it at all. 45. The Future indefinite can express various shades of aspective meaning, depending on the lexical meaning of the verb and the context. Therefore the ways of rendering it in Russian may be different. It can be translated by the future tense of both perfective and imperfective aspects with all possible shades of their meanings. Here are some examples: I ll write this letter on Sunday./ =0?8HC MB> ?8AL<> 2 2>A:@5A5=L5. (A perfective action.) She will stay with them for 0 whole week.=0 1C45B 3>AB8BL C =8E F5;CN =545;N. (An imperfective, durative action.) I shall write to you every day./ 1C4C ?8A0BL B515 :064K9 45=L (An imperfective, iterative action.) Don t be afraid, I shan t hit him.He 1>9AO, O 53> =5 C40@N. (A perfective, momentary action.) The future continuous 46. Formation. All the forms of the future continuous are analytic. They are formed with the future indefinite of the auxiliary to be (shall be, will be) and participle I of the notional verb. In the interrogative the corresponding form of the first auxiliary (shall/will) is placed in front of the subject, the second auxiliary (be) and participle I follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of the first auxiliary (shall/will) are used, the second auxiliary (be) and participle I follow them. In the negative-interrogative the corresponding negative-interrogativte forms of the first auxiliary (shall/will) are used, the second auxiliary (be) and participle I follow the subject. The paradigm of the verb in the future continuous AffirmativeInterrogative I shall be speaking He (she, it) will be speaking We shall be speaking You will be speaking They will be speakingShall I be speaking? Will he (she, it) be speaking? Shall we be speaking? Will you be speaking? Will they be speaking? Negative I shall not (shant) be speaking He (she, it) will not (wont) be speaking We shall not (shant) be speaking You will not (wont) be speaking They will not (wont) be speaking Negative-interrogative a)Shall I not be speaking? Will he (she, it) not be speaking? Shall we not be speaking? Will you not be speaking? Will they not be speaking?b)Shant I be speaking? Wont he (she, it) be speaking? Shant we be speaking? Wont you be speaking? Wont they be speaking? 47. The future continuous is used to denote: 1. An action in progress at a certain moment of time or during a certain period of time in the future (compare the corresponding use of the past continuous). At that time she will be having her early morning cup of coffee. In an hour I'll be flying over the sea. When she comes, I think Ill be packing already. It will be too late. He will be sleeping. From ten till twelve he will be writing in his study. As can be seen from the above examples, the moment (or period) of time at which the action is taking place is either indicated by special adverbials of time, or is implied by another future action, or else by the context or situation. 2. An action the occurrence of which is expected by the speaker. By the way, Megan will be coming to lunch. She says shell be seeing you tomorrow. In all its uses the future continuous is rendered in Russian by means of the future tense of the imperfective aspect (1C45B ?8BL, 1C4C ;5B5BL, 1C4C C?0:>2K20BLAO, etc.). The future perfect 48. Formation. The future perfect is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to have in the future indefinite (shall/will have) and participle II of the notional verb. In the interrogative the corresponding form of the first auxiliary (shall/will) is used in the front position and the second auxiliary (have) and participle II follow the subject. In the negative the corresponding negative forms of shall/will are used and the second auxiliary (have) and participle II follow them. In the negative-interrogative the corresponding negative-interrogative forms of shall/will are used in the front position and the second auxiliary and participle II follow the subject. The paradigm of the verb in the future perfect AffirmativeInterrogative I shall have spoken He (she, it) will have spoken We shall have spoken You will have spoken They will have spokenShall I have spoken? Will he (she, it) have spoken? Shall we have spoken? Will you have spoken? Will they have spoken? Negative I shall not (shant) have spoken He (she, it) will not (wont) have spoken We shall not (shant) have spoken You will not (wont) have spoken They will not (wont) have spoken 49. The future perfect is very rarely used either in conversation or in writing. It is used to denote: 1. An action that both begins and ends before, a definite moment of time in the future (the exclusive future perfect). "I have no doubt," I said, "that I shall have seen anybody who is anybody by then." You will have got my cable and I shall have received your answer long before this letter reaches you. The moment in the future before which the action is to begin and end may be indicated by appropriate adverbials or other verbs denoting future actions, or by the whole context or situation. 2. An action that begins before a certain moment of time in the future and goes up to it or into it. This is the case when the action in question is expressed by statal verbs, which do not admit of continuous forms, or else by certain actional durative verbs, such as to live, to study, to work, etc., which denote a process (the inclusive future perfect). She will have been in your service fifteen years next year. The future perfect continuous 50. Formation. The future perfect continuous is formed analytically by means of the auxiliary to be in the future perfect (shall/will have been) and participle I of the notional verb. Their interrogative, negative and negative-interrogative forms are built similar to other future forms. The paradigm of the verb in the future perfect continuous Affirmative InterrogativeI Weshall have been speakingShallI wehave been speaking  He (she, it) You They will have been speaking Willhe (she, it) you they have been speaking? Negative  I We shall not (shan't) have been speakingHe (she, it) You They will not (won't) have been speaking 51. The future perfect continuous is very rarely used, because situations which require it very seldom arise. It denotes actions which begin before a certain moment of time in the future and go on up to that moment or into it: I shall have been living there for five years next February. Future in the past tenses 52. There are four more future tense verb forms in English: the future in the past indefinite, the future in the past continuous, the future in the past perfect, the future in the past perfect continuous, which differ from the previously discussed forms. They refer the actions not to the actual future, but to the future viewed as such from the standpoint of past time. The future in the past forms are dependent, as they are used mainly in object clauses in reported speech after verbs in the past tense forms. The most frequently used is the future in the past indefinite (the past simple). 53. Formation. All the future in the past forms are analytical. They are formed by means of the auxiliaries should and would and the corresponding form of the notional verb (should speak, should be speaking, should have spoken, should have been speaking)*. * The contracted form for both would and should is d: Id speak... The paradigms of the verb in the future in the past The future in the past indefinite Affirmative Interrogative*I We should speakShouldI wespeak? He (she, it) You Theywould speak Wouldhe (she, it) you they speak?  Negative  I We should not speak He (she, it) You They would not speak  * The interrogative future in the past occurs only in sentences reproducing inner speech (conventional direct speech). 54. The future in the past forms are mostly used in object clauses dependent on verbs in the past tense in the principal clause. None of them can be used in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by the conjunctions when, while, before, after, till, until, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided, etc. In all these clauses the corresponding forms of the past tense are used. However the conjunctions when and if may be used to open object clauses, then the future in the past forms can be used if required by the sense: She didnt know when I should return. I doubted if we should see him at all. 55. The future in the past indefinite is used to denote simple facts, habitual actions and successions of actions in the future viewed from the past: He said he would soon fake up French. I knew she would still see him as often as she could. He said they would start at dawn, reach the river in the afternoon and in an hour or two would proceed up the road towards the cliffs. The sun was setting. In an hour it would be quite dark. 56. The future in the past continuous is used to denote an action in progress at a certain moment of time, or an action that is expected by the speaker as a result of a naturally developing situation, both referring to the future considered as such at a certain moment of time in the past: And she thought, poor soul, that at this time next Sunday she would be approaching her beloved Paris. Then she mentioned in a rather matter-of-fact way, that Jack would be calling the very next day. 57. The future in the past perfect is used to denote an action completed before a certain moment of time in the future treated as such at some moment in the past: He realized that he would have accomplished his task long before midnight. In subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition described above ( 54) the past perfect is used to denote the same kind of action: He said he would do it after he had seen me. 58. The future in the past perfect continuous denotes an action in progress that begins before a certain moment of time in the future viewed from the past and goes on up to that moment and into it. It is an exceptionally rare form, which is hardly ever found in any text. He said lie would have been living here for ten years next year. 59. Though the future in the past form refer the actions they denote to the future (viewed from the past), their actual time reference is broader than that of the future, for the actions thus expressed may refer not only to the actual future but also to the actual present or the past: He said he would call tomorrow, and Im going to stay in till he comes. (actual future) I said I should come today, and so Im here! (actual present) Im so upset. He said he would come the day before yesterday, but he didnt. (actual past) The sequence of tenses 60. The rules of the sequence of tenses are one of the peculiarities of English. The sequence of tenses is a dependence of the tense form of the predicate in a subordinate clause on the tense form of the predicate in its principal clause. The rules mainly concern object clauses depending on principal clauses with the predicate verb in one of the past tenses, though it holds true also for some other subordinate clauses (such as subject, predicative and appositive ones). The rules are as follows: a present (or future) tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the subordinate object clause: 1.I know I say I am just saying I have always known Ive just been telling her I shall tell her (that)he plays tennis well. he is playing tennis in the park. he has played two games today. he has been playing tennis since morning. he played tennis yesterday. he was playing tennis when the storm began. he had played two games before the storm began. he had been playing tennis for some time when the storm began. he will play tennis in summer. he will be playing tennis all day long. he will have played some games before you return. he will have been playing tennis for some time before you come. 2) a past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate object clause. I knew I said I was just saying I had never known She had been telling(that)he played tennis well. he was playing tennis in the park. he had played two games that day. he had been playing tennis since morning. he had played tennis the day before. he had been playing when the storm began. he had played two games before the storm. he had been playing tennis for some time before the storm. he would play tennis in summer. he would be playing tennis all day long. he would have played some games by the time you returned. he would have been playing tennis for more than an hour before you came. Thus the past indefinite or the past continuous tense in the subordinate clause denotes an action, simultaneous with that of the pripcipal clause. They are translated into Russian by the present tense. For a moment she did not know where she was. Joanna noticed suddenly that I was not listening. Had she not hinted what was troubling her? He had thought it was his own son. People had been saying he was a madman. My first thought was where they were now. The past perfect or the past perfect continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause. Both of these forms are translated into Russian by the past tense. I perceived that something had happened. I wasnt going to tell her that Megan had rung me up. I knew well enough what she had been doing. Up to that moment I had not realized what they had been trying to prove. The fact was that his sister Rose had married beneath her. She had a feeling that she had been deceived. The future in the past tenses in the subordinate clause denote an action following that of the principal clause. I hoped she would soon be better. I told Caroline that I should be dining at Fernley. What she would say or do did not bother him. The fact remained that none of us would see them till late at night. The sudden thought that Nell would not come at all flashed through his head. The fact that the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the action in the principal clause may be also indicated by other means. She said she was going to see him the same night. 61. The rules of the sequence of tenses concern subordinate clauses dependent not only on the predicate of the principal clause but also on any part expressed by a verb or verbal: I received from her a letter saying that she was passing through Paris and would like to have a chat with me. She smiled again, sure that I should come up. She turned her head slightly, well aware that he was watching her. In complex sentences containing more than two subordinate clauses the choice of the tense form for each of them depends on the tense form of the clause to which it is subordinated: I guess you told him where they had come from and why they were hiding. As far as I can see he did not realize that very soon all would be over. Besides the complex sentences described above the rules of the sequence of tenses are also found in all types of clauses and simple sentences reproducing inner speech (conventional direct speech). 62. As already stated the rules of the sequence of tenses concern object, subject and predicative clauses. In all the other clauses (attributive and adverbial ones) the use of tenses depends wholly on the sense to be conveyed: Clyde thought of all the young and thoughtless company of which he had been a part. He lifted the heavy latch which held the large iron gate in place. She only liked men who are good-looking. I was thinking of the day which will come only too soon. He was standing where the creek turns sharply to the east. At the moment he was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the living-room fire. She felt gay as he had promised to take her to the pictures. You see, I could not follow them as Im rather shy. Mr. Direcks broken wrist healed sooner than he desired. He knew the job better than I do. She had been a wife for even less time than you have. In my youth life was not the same as it is now. 63. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in the following cases: 1) when the subordinate clause describes the so-called general truth, or something which the speaker thinks to be one. Up to then Roy never realized that our Solar system is but a tiny speck in the infinite Universe. The other day I read in a book that everything alive consists mostly of water. She was very young and - and ignorant of what life really is. 2) when the subordinate clause describes actions referring to the actual present, future, or past time, which usually occurs in dialogues or in newspaper, radio, or TV reports. Margaret, I was saying to you - and I beg you to listen to me that as far as I have known Mrs. Erlynne, she has conducted herself well. Before the flier crashed, the operator said ten minutes later, he gave me information. He told me there are still a few men alive in these mountains. I did not know he will be here tomorrow. 3) when the predicate verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal verbs having no past tense forms. She said I must come at once. I thought you should come too. The category of voice 64. Voice is the grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the action expressed by the verb and the person or non-person denoted by the subject of the sentence. There are two main voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. There are also other voices which embrace a very limited number of verbs: reflexive (wash oneself), reciprocal (embrace one another), medial (the book reads well). The active voice indicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the subject, thus the subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action:  We help our friends. - K ?><>305< =0H8< 4@C7LO<. The passive voice indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Here the subject expresses a person or non-person who or which is the receiver of the action. It does not act, but is acted upon and therefore affected by the action of the verb.  We were helped by our friends in our work. @01>B5 =0< ?><>3;8 =0H8 4@C7LO. The contrast between the two voices can be seen from the following examples: I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the other hand, I had been asked none. They saw but were not seen./ =5 704020; 2>?@>A>2, =>, A 4@C3>9 AB>@>=K, 8 <=5 =5 704020;8 2>?@>A>2. =8 2845;8, => 8E =5 2845;8. The difference in the meaning of the forms helped - were helped, had asked - had been asked, saw - was seen illustrates the morphological contrast between the active and the passive voice. Of all the verb categories voice is most closely related to the syntax of the sentence. The interrelation of the active and the passive voice on the syntactical level can be presented in the following way: SubjectPredicate VerbObjectJohnhelpedPetePetewas helpedby John A sentence containing a verb in the passive voice is called a passive construction, and a sentence containing a verb in the active voice is called an active construction, especially when opposed to the passive construction. The subject of an active construction denotes the agent (doer) of the action, which may be a living being, or any source of the action (a thing, a natural phenomenon, an abstract notion). The subject of a passive construction has the meaning of the receiver of the action, that is a person or non-person affected by the action. The object of an active construction denotes the receiver of the action, whereas the object of the passive construction is the agent of the action. The latter is introduced by the preposition by. If it is not the agent but the instrument, it is introduced by the preposition with. The cup was broken by Jim. It was broken with a hammer. Formation and the system of forms in the passive voice 65. The active voice has no special means of formation. It is recognized by contrast with the passive voice, which is composed of the auxiliary verb to be and participle II. Thus the passive verb forms are analytical, the tense of the auxiliary verb to be varies according to the sense. The notional verb (participle II) remains unchanged and provides the whole analytical form with its passive meaning. The category of voice applies to the whole system of English verb forms, both finite and non-finite. Table II The voice forms of the verb Perfect Tense The active voice The Passive Voice AspectPresent Past Future Present Past Future  Non-perfectCommon takes took will take is taken was taken will be taken Continuous is taking was taking will be taking is being taken was being taken -----------   PerfectCommon has taken had taken will have taken has been taken had been taken will have been taken Continuous has been takinghad been takingwill have been taking  ------------- ----------------------  Note: The verb to get occurs as a passive voice auxiliary, emphasizing the result of the action denoted by participle II. They got married last year. I got hurt in an accident. The active voice 66. The active voice is widely used with all kinds of verbs, both transitive and intransitive. The meaning of the active voice depends on the type of verb and the syntactical pattern of the sentence. 1. The active voice of transitive verbs presents an action as directed from the subject and passing over to the object, that is from the doer (agent) of the action to its receiver. John made a boat for his brother. They are building a new railway. We are talking about the new film. One of the characteristic features of English is that verbs which were originally intransitive may function as transitive verbs without changing their morphological structure, with or without changing their lexical meaning. They ran the distance in five minutes. Frank will run your house. James stood the lamp on the table. 2. The active voice of intransitive verbs shows that the action, directed from the subject, does not pass over to any object, and thus the verb only characterizes the subject as the doer of the action. He came here yesterday. The boy can run very fast. You acted wisely. He slept eight hours. 3. The form of the active voice of some transitive verbs, often accompanied by an adverbial modifier, does not indicate that the subject denotes the doer of the action. This specific use of the transitive verb is easily recognized from the meaning of the subject, which is a noun denoting a non-person, and by the absence of a direct object after a monotransitive, non-prepositional verb. In such cases the verb is used in the medial voice. The bell rang. The door opened. The newspaper sells well. The novel reads easily. Glass breaks easily. The place was filling up. It said on the radio (in the article) that the weather forecast is favourable. The passive voice The use of tense, aspect and perfect forms in the passive voice 67. As seen from table II, verbs in the passive voice may acquire almost all the aspect, tense and perfect forms that occur in the active voice, except for the future continuous and perfect continuous forms. The examples below illustrate the use of the passive voice in different aspect, tense and perfect forms. Common aspect, non-perfect Students are examined twice a year. They were examined in June. They will be examined next Friday. Continuous aspect, non-perfect Dont be noisy! Students are being examined. The students were being examined when the Professor came. Common aspect, perfect Our students have already been examined. They had been examined by 2 oclock. Everybody will have been examined by 3 oclock. The passive voice of different verbs 68. The passive voice in English may be found with different types of verbs (mostly transitive) in various verb phrases; monotransitive (non-prepositional and prepositional) and ditransitive. The subject of the passive construction may correspond to a direct, an indirect object, or to a prepositional object in the active construction. Accordingly we discriminate a direct passive construction, an indirect passive construction, and a prepositional passive construction. Monotransitive verbs are numerous and almost all of them can form a direct passive construction. These are the verbs: to take, to do, to make, to build, to discuss, to translate, to hate, to love, to meet and a lot of others. A new railway is being built near our town. A Farewell to Arms was published in 1929. You will be met at the station. Phrasal transitive verbs, that is, such verbs as to blow up, to bring in, to bring up, to carry out, to put on, to see off, to turn down, etc. are also often used in the passive voice. The plan was successfully carried out. The boats are being brought in. Originally intransitive verbs may form a direct passive construction, as in these examples: This distance has never been run in five minutes before. He thought of the lives, that had been lived here for nearly two centuries. In the vast majority of cases, English transitive verb + object corresponds to the same type in Russian. There are a number of transitive verbs in English, however, which correspond to Russian verbs followed by an indirect or a prepositional object, or sometimes an adverbial modifier. These verbs are: To answer To approach To assist To address To admire To affect To attend To believe To contradict To enjoy To enterto follow to help to influence to join to need to obey to speak to succeed to threaten to trust to watch Sentences with these verbs are rendered in Russian by means of the indefinite personal constructions with the verb in the active voice, or if the doer of the action is mentioned of a personal construction with the verb in the active voice. We are not trusted, David, but who cares if we are not innocent. The British bicycle was much admired. In the spring of 1925 Hemingway was approached by two Americans.0< =5 4>25@ONB... -B8< 0=3;89A:8< 25;>A8?54>< 2>AE8I0;8AL. 5A=>9 1925 3>40 : %5<8=3CMN ?>4>H;8 420 0<5@8:0=F0. A direct passive construction is used in the sentences of the type: J. F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960. The woman was called Brome. We were kept busy most of the time. The walls were painted blue.* * For details see in Syntax, 55. He is said (believed, known, reported) to be in town. He was seen to enter the museum. He was seen leaving the museum.* * For details see in Syntax, 53. 3. The direct passive of verbs of speech, mental activity, and perception is used in complex sentences with the formal subject it.  It was suggested It was reportedthat he was still in town. It was said It was believed It was known It was settled  that we should meet once more. Restrictions to the use of the passive voice 1. Though in many cases there is an evident correspondence of the active and the passive voice construction it is by no means a one-to-one correspondence. There is a certain group of monotransitive verbs which are never used in the passive voice at all, or in some of their meanings; they are: to have, to lack, to become, to fit, to suit, to resemble. There are semantic reasons for this constraint, as these verbs denote not an action or process, but a state or relation. John resembles his father. (John looks like his father.) He lacks confidence. (There is no confidence in him.) Will this suit you? (Will it be suitable for you?) The verb to hold can be used in the passive voice only with reference to human activity; for example: The conference was held in April. However, in a sentence like The auditorium holds 5000 people the verb does not denote human activity. The sentence means There can be 5000 people in this auditorium. 2. No passive construction is possible, if the object is a that-clause, an infinitive or a gerund. John said that everything was all right. John enjoyed seeing his native town. Passive constructions with ditransitive verbs 69. Ditransitive verbs take two objects, usually one indirect and one direct. Accordingly they admit of two passive constructions.  The referee gave Mary the first prize . Mary was given the first prize by the referee. The first prize was given to Mary by the referee. The subject of the first passive construction (Mary) corresponds to the indirect object of the active construction, and the construction is therefore called the indirect passive construction. The direct object (the first prize) is retained unchanged after the passive verb and therefore, is called the retained object. The subject of the second passive construction corresponds to the direct object of the active construction. In this case the indirect object becomes a prepositional one. The preposition to may be omitted. The agentive by-object corresponding to the subject of the active construction is very rarely used in either type of construction. Of the two passive constructions the indirect passive is by far the most common. As there is no indirect passive construction in Russian, sentences with this construction are translated into Russian by means of the indefinite personal construction with the indirect object in the front position. You will be given another ticket. I was allowed an hours rest.0< 404CB 4@C3>9 18;5B. =5 @07@5H8;8 >B4>E=CBL >48= G0A. The indirect passive construction gives greater prominence to the direct object, whereas the direct passive construction emphasizes the indirect object: The first prize was given to Mary implies that it was not given to anybody else. The construction may be translated in two ways, by an indefinite personal active construction or by a passive construction: 5@2CN ?@5<8N 40;8 M@8 or 5@20O ?@5<8O 1K;0 40=0 (?@8AC645=0) M@8. The presence of the by-object makes it of great communicative value.  I was given this watch by my father. The watch was given (to) me by mC father.'0AK MB8 <=5 ?>40@8; <>8 >B5F.  Ditransitive verbs used in the passive construction IIIto allow to give to grant to lend to offer to pay to promise to teach to tellto ask to answer to envy to forgive to refuse Verbs in group I follow the usage explained in the previous part of this section. The same refers to group II with the difference that all the verbs of this group are followed by two direct objects, though in the passive the difference is not so distinct. I was asked a lot of questions. Restrictions on the use of the passive of ditransitive verbs 1. The indirect passive is impossible with verbs of benefaction, when the action is performed for the benefit of somebody. They bought me a dictionary. The corresponding direct passive is:They bought a dictionary for me. A dictionary was bought for me. 2. The same applies to the verbs with the obligatory to of the type to explain something to somebody (to describe, to dictate, to suggest, etc.). With these only the direct passive is possible: The rule was explained to them once more. 3. In verb-phrases containing a non-prepositional and a prepositional object only the non-prepositional passive is possible. I was told about their victory. Oliver was accused of theft. 4. The infinitive cannot be used as the subject of the passive construction with a ditransitive verb. 70. Passive constructions with prepositional monotransitive verbs Active: Passive:The man referred to this book. This book was referred to by the man. In the passive construction the subject of the prepositional passive construction corresponds to the object of the active construction and denotes the receiver of the action. The peculiarity of the construction is that the preposition sticks to the verb. Most verbs of this type denote the process of speaking, mental and physical perception. The prepositional passive construction has no equivalent in Russian and is translated by an indefinite personal active construction. Caroline was also still being talked about. 5 had never been spoken to that way in his life. He s well spoken of as a man of science. M@>;09= B>65 2A5 5I5 ?@>4>;60;8 3>2>@8BL. ! =8< B0: =8:>340 2 687=8 =5 @073>20@820;8.  =5< E>@>H> >B7K20NBAO :0: >1 CG5=><. When the prepositional passive construction contains a modal verb, an impersonal active construction is used in Russian. These pictures must be looked at again and again with sustained attention before they completely reveal their beauty.0 MB8 :0@B8=K =04> A<>B@5BL A=>20 8 A=>20 A =5>A;01520NI8< 2=8<0=85<, ?@5645 G5< ?>;=>ABLN @0A:@>5BAO 8E :@0A>B0. Here are some of the most important prepositional monotransitive verbs: IIIIIIto account for to agree upon to appeal to to call on to comment on (upon) to deal with to decide on to depend (up)on to dispose of to dwell upon to hear of to insist on to interfere with to laugh at to listen to to look at to look for to look into to object to to pay for to provide for to put up with to read to to refer to to rely on to send for to speak about (of) to speak to to talk about (of) to think about (of) to touch upon to wait for to wonder atto catch sight of to lose sight of to find fault with to make fun of to make a fuss of to make use of to pay attention to to put an end (a stop) to to put up with to set fire to to take notice of to take advantage of to take care of to arrive at to come to to live in to sleep in to sit in (on) Group I in the list contains the majority (but not all) of prepositional transitive verbs. The list could be continued, for a number of verbs of the kind are used occasionally, but the pattern itself is very productive. Some prepositional monotransitive verbs have non-prepositional equivalents, e.g. to account for is a synonym for to explain, to look on - to regard, to speak (talk) about - to discuss. Your absence must be accounted for. = Your absence must be explained. Group II contains phraseological units based on the fusion of a monotransitive verb and a noun as direct object. These units express one notion and function as prepositional verbs. Many of them have synonyms among monotransitive verbs, prepositional and non-prepositional: to take care of to find fault with to put an end to to put up with to make fun of- to look after, to tend; - to grumble at, about, to criticize; - to stop; - to reconcile oneself to; - to laugh at, to mock. Like single prepositional verbs the phraseological units with the verb in the passive voice are usually rendered in Russian by means of indefinite personal or impersonal constructions. In hospital patients are taken great care of. The boy was the only child and was made a lot of fuss of. Im not prepared to think that Im being made a fool of. 3>A?8B0;5 70 1>;L=K<8 E>@>H> CE06820NB. 0;LG8: 1K; 548=AB25==K< @515=:>< 2 A5<L5, 8 A =8< <=>3> 2>78;8AL. =5 =5 E>G5BAO 4C<0BL, GB> <5=O 4C@0G0B.  Sometimes a phraseological unit is split and the original direct object becomes the subject of the passive construction (the direct passive). No notice was taken of the boy at first. - !=0G0;0 <0;LG8:0 =5 70<5G0;8. Group III contains a short list of intransitive verbs used with prepositional nominal groups functioning as prepositional objects or adverbial modifiers. These may form passive constructions by analogy with other verbs used with prepositions: No conclusion was arrived at. His bed hasn t been slept in. Such a dress can t be sat down in.He ?@8H;8 =8 : :0:><C 70:;NG5=8N.  53> ?>AB5;8 =5 A?0;8. (=0 =5 A<OB0)  B0:>< ?;0BL5 =5;L7O A048BLAO. The use of the passive voice 71. The passive voice is widely used in English. It is used alongside the active voice in written and spoken English. Passive constructions are often used instead of active constructions in sentences beginning with an indefinite pronoun, a noun or a pronoun of indefinite reference. Somebody left the dog in the garden. Has anybody answered your questions? People will laugh at you for your trouble. They told me to go away.= The dog was left in the garden. = Have your questions been answered? = You will be laughed at for your trouble. = I was told to go away. It is evident that in the process of speech passive constructions arise naturally, not as a result of conversion from the active into the passive. A passive construction is preferable in case when the speaker is interested in what happens to the person or thing denoted by the subject. The verb or the whole verb phrase is thus made more prominent. The agent or the source of the action is not mentioned at all, either because it is unknown or because it is of no particular importance in the utterance, or else it is evident from the context or the situation. The predicate verb with its modifiers contains a new and most important item of information and is of great communicative value. We were brought up together. I am always being contradicted. Thank you for your help, but it is no longer required. You will be met as you leave the airport, and you will be given another ticket. In silence the soup was finished - excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed. There are a number of conventional expressions where the passive voice is constantly used. The novel was published in 1929. Shakespeare was born in 1564. The use of the agentive by-object 72. The use of the agentive by-object is highly restricted, it occurs in one case out of five, and even less frequently in colloquial speech and imaginative prose. However, when it does occur, the by-object is of great communicative value, and its elimination would often make the meaning of the verb incomplete and the sentence devoid of meaning. The agent may be a living being, or any thing or notion that can be the source of the action. The whole scene was being enacted by puppets. In some areas the picture has been barely touched by the brush. I was wounded by a landmine. The distant mountain had been formed by fire and water. How much was she influenced by that fake idea? Besides a noun and very rarely a pronoun, a by-object may be a gerundial phrase or complex, or a subordinate clause. I was then awakened only by knocking on the window and Annie telling the person responsible to go off. She didnt really know anything about people, she was always being taken in by what they told her. Owing to its communicative value and the final position in the sentence, the by-object may be expanded, if necessary, to an extent that is hardly possible in the subject group, as in this commentary on Cezanne's painting: The Card Players. The subject of this painting of two peasants playing cards was probably inspired by a similar composition by one of the brothers de Pack, French painters of the seventeenth century whose work Cezanne admired. The category of mood 73. The meaning of this category is the attitude of the speaker or writer towards the content of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc. It is expressed in the form of the verb. There are three moods in English - the indicative mood, the imperative mood and the subjunctive mood. The indicative mood 74. The indicative mood form shows that what is said must be regarded as a fact, as something which has occurred or is occurring at the moment of speaking or will occur in the future. It may denote actions with different time-reference and different aspective characteristics. Therefore the indicative mood has a wide variety of tense and aspect forms in the active and passive voice. The imperative mood 75. The imperative mood expresses a command or a request to perform an action addressed to somebody, but not the action itself. As it does not actually denote an action as a real act, it has no tense category; the unfulfilled action always refers to the future. Aspect distinctions and voice distinctions are not characteristic of the imperative mood, although forms such as, be writing, be warned sometimes occur. The imperative mood form coincides with the plain stem of the verb, for example: Come here! Sit down. The negative form is built by means of the auxiliary do + the negative particle not (the contracted form is dont). This form is always addressed to the second person. Do not take it away. Dont worry about the child. Dont be a fool. Note: Do is also used in commands or requests to make them more emphatic: Do come and stay with us. Do be quiet. In commands and requests addressed to a first or third person (or persons) the analytical form let + infinitive without the particle to is used. The verb let functions as an auxiliary, and it partly loses its lexical meaning. The person addressed is expressed by the personal pronoun in the objective case. Let us go together. Let him finish his dinner first. Let Andrew do it himself. In negative sentences the analytical forms take the particle not without an auxiliary. Let us not argue on the matter. Let him not overestimate his chances. Let her not go any further. Note: In sentences like Dont let him go the negation refers to the verb let, which in this case fully retains its original meaning of permission. The analytical forms differ in meaning from the synthetic forms, because their meaning is closely connected with the meaning of the pronoun included in the form. Thus let us do smth denotes an invitation to a joint action, not an order or a request. Let him do it retains to some extent the meaning of permission. In the form let me (let me do it) the first person singular does not convey any imperative meaning and should not therefore be regarded as the imperative. It conveys the meaning of I am eager to do it, allow me to do it. The imperative mood form cant be used in questions. The subjunctive mood 76. The subjunctive mood is the category of the verb which is used to express non-facts: unreal or hypothetical actions or states. A hypothetical action or state may be viewed upon as desired, necessary, possible, supposed, imaginary, or contradicting reality. Different forms of the verb are employed for this purpose. The synthetic forms 77. In Old English the subjunctive mood was expressed by a special system of forms with a special set of inflections, different from those of the indicative. In the course of time, however, most of the inflections were lost, and the difference between the forms of the subjunctive and those of the indicative has almost disappeared. In Modern English there remain only two synthetic forms of the old regular system of the subjunctive, which differ from the forms of the indicative. Although their meaning and use have changed considerably, they are often called by their old names: the present subjunctive and the past subjunctive. I. The present subjunctive coincides with the plain verb stem (be, go, see) for all persons in both the singular and the plural. It denotes a hypothetical action referring to the present or future. Of these surviving forms only be is always distinct from the indicative forms and is therefore rather current.  I he she it we you they  be, take, resent, etc.  He required that all be kept secret. Other verbs are rarely used in the subjunctive in informal style, because their subjunctive forms coincide with the indicative except in the 3rd person singular. They are confined mainly to formal style and formulaic expressions - prayers, wishes, which should be memorized as wholes. It is natural enough the enemy resent it. Heaven forbid! The devil take him! Long live freedom! God save the king! II. The past subjunctive is even more restricted in its usage; it exists in Modern English only in the form were, which is used for all persons both in the singular and plural. It refers the hypothetical action to the present or future and shows that it contradicts reality. If I were you! If you were there! If it were true! The modem tendency, however, is to use was and were in accordance with the rules of agreement (he was, they were). The non-factual forms of the tenses 78. Owing to the same process of the obliteration of distinctions between the old subjunctive and the indicative the same forms have come to be used for both purposes in Modern English. To differentiate those used to express hypothetical actions or states (non-facts) from tenses in the indicative they will be called non-factual forms of the tenses. The non-factual past indefinite and past continuous are used to denote hypothetical actions in the present or future; the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous denote hypothetical actions in the past. These two pairs of forms differ not only in their time-reference but also in their degree of improbability: If I had only known expresses greater improbability than If I only knew because it refers to a time which has already passed. In Russian this difference is not reflected in the form of the verb. The wide use of the non-factual past indefinite (If I knew, if he came...) probably accounts for the strong tendency in Modern English to substitute was for the past subjunctive form were, at least in less formal style. This tendency makes the system of subjunctive mood forms more similar and comparable to the system of indicative mood forms: if I knew..., if I was (instead of were), I wish I knew..., I wish I was (instead of were). On the other hand, were is often used instead of was in the non-factual past continuous. He smiled as if he were enjoying the situation. The analytical forms 79. Most of the later formations are analytical, built by means of the auxiliaries which developed from the modal verbs should and would, plus any form of the infinitive. The auxiliaries, generally called mood auxiliaries, have lost their lexical meaning and are used in accordance with strict rules in certain patterns of sentences or clauses. In cases where should and would retain their original modal meaning or their use is not determined by any strict rules, they should be regarded as modal verbs, forming a compound verbal (or nominal) modal predicate. You should be more palient with the child. Still, some modal verbs are regularly used to denote hypothetical actions in certain syntactic patterns - may/might + infinitive, can/could + infinitive, but to a certain degree retain their original meaning. These will be regarded as quasi-subjunctive forms. However much you may argue, he will do as he pleases (expresses possibility). I wish I could help you (expresses ability). If you would agree to visit my uncle, ... (expresses wish). Analytic forms may be divided into three groups, according to their use and function. I. The forms should + infinitive (for the first person singular and plural) and would + infinitive (for the other persons). This system coincides in form with the future in the past. These forms may be used either in a simple sentence or in the main clause. There is a strong tendency in Modern English to use would for all persons, in the same way as will is used instead of shall in the indicative mood. Another tendency is to use the contracted form of would d for all person in informal style. (Compare this usage with that of the contracted form ll in the indicative.) These forms denote hypothetical actions, either imagined as resulting from hypothetical conditions, or else presented as a real possibility. I would not praise the boy so much. Would you help me if I need your help? He would smoke too much if I didnt stop him now and again. II. The form would + infinitive for all persons, both singular and plural. This form is highly specialised in meaning; it expresses a desirable action in the future. It may be used both in simple and complex sentences. Let us invite him. He would gladly accept the invitation. I wish you would go there too. III. The form should + infinitive for all persons. This form stands apart in the system of the verb, as contrary to the general tendency to use either two forms - should and would, or else to use one form - would for all persons. The meaning of the form is rather broad - it depends on the context. It is important that all the students should be informed about it. It is strange that we should have met in the same place. It can easily be seen that most of the forms used to express hypothetical actions are homonymous with the indicative mood forms, either with tense forms or with free combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive. Hence most forms are recognizable as subjunctive only under certain conditions: 1) when they are used in certain sentence or clause patterns. We shall regard such cases as structurally determined use of the subjunctive mood; 2) when their use is determined by the lexical meaning of the verb or conjunction (see below examples with the verb wish and the conjunction lest). 3) in some set expressions (formulaic utterances) which have to be learned as wholes and in which no element of the structure can be omitted or replaced. We shall regard these cases as the traditional use of the forms. The first two conditions very often overlap. The subjunctive mood and the tense category 80. The category of tense in the subjunctive mood is different from that in the indicative mood: unlike the indicative mood system in which there are three distinct time-spheres (past, present, future), time-reference in the subjunctive mood is closely connected with the idea of unreality and is based on the following opposition in meaning: Imagined, but still possible (referring to the present or future indiscriminately)imagined, no longer possible (referring to the past)  The difference in meaning is expressed by means of the following contrasting forms: 1) The common or continuous non-perfect infinitive as contrasted with the perfect common or continuous infinitive in the analytical forms with should, would, and quasi-subjunctive forms with may (might). Referring to the Present or Future I fear lest he should escape. He would phone you. I suppose he should be working in the library.Referring to the Past I fear lest he should have escaped. He would have phoned you. I suppose he should have been working in the library. 2) The forms of the non-factual past indefinite and past continuous contrast with the forms of the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous in time reference: Referring to the Present or Future If I knew. I wish I were warned when the time-table is changed.Referring to the Past If I had known. I wish I had been warned. In case these forms are used in subordinate clauses (as is usually the case) their time-reference is always relative. The non-factual past indefinite and past continuous indicate that the hypothetical action is regarded as simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause; the non-factual past perfect and past perfect continuous indicate actions prior to the action expressed in the principal clause. We did things and talked to the people as if we were walking in our sleep. His face was haggard as if he had been working the whole night. The opposition of the non-perfect continuous infinitive and the perfect continuous infinitive is less distinct, as these forms are not so common: an imaginary action is usually presented as devoid of any aspective characteristics. The old synthetic forms (he be, he come, he were) have no corresponding oppositions in time-reference. Structurally determined use of subjunctive mood forms 81. In Modern English the choice of the subjunctive mood form is determined by the structure of the sentence or clause even more than by the attitude of the speaker or writer to what is said or written. There exist strict rules of the use of the forms in different patterns of sentences and clauses. The subjunctive mood in subject clauses 82. 1. The use of the subjunctive mood forms in subject clauses in complex sentences of the type It is necessary that you should come. Subject clauses follow the principal clause, which is either formal or has no subject (exclamatory). The predicate of the principal clause expresses some kind of modality, estimate, or some motive for performing the action denoted by the predicate in the subordinate clause. This close connection between the two predicates accounts for the nature of the subordinate clause, which completes, or rather gives meaning to general situation described in the principal clause. Should + infinitive or present subjunctive is generally used in this pattern in the subject clause. It is (was) necessary It is (was) important It is (was) only right It is (was) curious It is (was) funny It is (was) good (better, best) It is (was) cruel It is (was) shameful It is (was) a happy coincidence It is (was) considered strange It is (was) recomended It becomes (became) a custom It seems (seemed) to me prophetic How wonderful What a shame How strange etc.  that he should say so. (that he say so). It is sad that you should have heard of it on the day of your wedding. It is a happy coincidence that we should meet here. It shocked him that he should have been so blind. It was suggested that somebody should inform the police. It was more important that he should care for her enough. In American English the present subjunctive is predominant in this sentence pattern: It is sad that you be here. In exclamatory complex sentences: How wonderful that she should have such a feeling for you! What a scandal that Palmer and Antonia should go to the opera together! If the principal clause expresses possibility (it is probable, possible, likely) may (might) + non-perfect infinitive is used, because the action is referred to the future (>7<>6=>, GB>...; ?>E>65, GB>...; 2848<>...) It is likely the weather may change. It is possible the key may be lost. In negative and interrogative sentences, however, should + infinitive is used: It is not possible that he should have guessed it. Is it possible that he should refuse to come?525@>OB=>, GB>1K... >7<>6=> ;8, GB>1K... Note: If in sentences introduced by it the reference is made to an existing fact or state of things, the indicative mood may be used in the subordinate clause. It is strange that he behaves like that. Is it possible that he has taken the key? 2. After the principal clause expressing time - it is time, it is high time -the past subjunctive or non-factual forms are used. It is time you went to bed. It is high time he were more serious. It was hight time he had come to a decision. The subjunctive mood in object clauses 83. The choice of the subjunctive mood form in object clauses depends on the meaning of the verb standing before the object clause. 1. In object clauses after verbs expressing order (to order, to command, to give orders, to give instructions, to demand, to urge, to insist, to require), request (to request, to appeal, to beg), suggestion (to suggest, to recommend, to propose, to move, to advise) either should + infinitive or the present subjunctive is used, the first form being more common than the second. We urged that in future these relations should be more friendly. Mr. Nupkins commanded that the lady should be shown in. In American English the present subjunctive in this sentence pattern is predominant. People dont demand that a thing be reasonable if their emotions are touched. I suggested that she give up driving, but she looked too miserable. The same form is used after the predicative adjectives sorry, glad, pleased, vexed, eager, anxious, determined, etc., if the action is regarded as an imagined one. I am sorry she should take such needless trouble. His brothers suggestion was absurd. He was vexed his relatives should interfere into his private matters. 2. In object clauses after the verb wish and phrases expressing the same idea I had better, I would rather, or the contracted form Id rather -different forms may be used, depending on the time-reference of the action in the object clause. If the action refers to the present or future, or is simultaneous with the action expressed in the principal clause, the non-factual past indefinite, past continuous, or past subjunctive is used. After Id rather the present subjunctive is also possible. I wish I knew something of veterinary medicine. Theres a feeling of helplessness with a sick animal. I wish you came here more often. I hardly ever see you. I would rather you went now. Id rather you didnt help me, actually. Note: To express a realizable wish an infinitive, not a clause is generally used: I want him to come. I should like to discuss things in detail. He wished it to be true. If the action refers to the past or is prior to the moment it is desired the non-factual past perfect or past perfect continuous is used, no matter in what tense the verb in the principal clause is. Thus in both the sentences I wish I hadnt come and I wished I hadnt come the non-factual past perfect denotes a prior imaginary action, contradicting reality. We wished we hadnt left everything to the last minute. I wish I had been taught music in my childhood. If the desired action refers to the future the following subjunctive forms may be used: would + infinitive (only when the subject of the subordinate clause and that of the principal clause do not denote the same thing or person). It denotes a kind of request. could + infinitive may (might) + infinitive The form would + infinitive is used when the fulfilment of the wish depends on the will of the person denoted by the subject of the subordinate clause. If the fulfilment of the wish depends more on the circumstances, the quasi-subjunctive form may (might) + infinitive is preferable, to show that the realization of the action is very unlikely. I wish you would treat me better. I wish I could help you. I wish he might have helped me. When rendering wish-clauses into Russian it is possible to use a clause with the opposite meaning, introduced by the impersonal 60;L, :0: 60;L, :0:0O 60;>ABL or by the finite form of the verb A>60;5BL. I wish I knew it. I wish I didn t know it! I wish I had known about it!- 0;L, GB> O MB>3> =5 7=0N. - 0:0O 60;>ABL, GB> O MB> 7=0N! - 0;L, GB> O =5 7=0; >1 MB><! 3. In object clauses after verbs expressing fear, apprehension, worry (to fear, to be afraid, to be terrified, to be anxious, to worry, to be fearful, to be troubled, to be in terror, to tremble, to dread, etc.) two forms are used, depending on the conjunction introducing the clause: after the conjunction that or if the clause is joined asyndetically, the quasi-subjunctive may/might + infinitive is used. The choice of either may or might depends on the tense of the verb in the main clause. They trembled (that) they might be discovered. I fear (that) he may forget about it.=8 4@>60;8, GB> 8E <>3CB >1=0@C68BL. >NAL, :0: 1K >= =5 701K; >1 MB><. b) after the conjunction lest the form should + infinitive is used. The passengers were terrified lest the ship should catch fire.0AA068@>2 >E20B8; C60A, :0: 1K :>@01;L =5 703>@5;AO. The indicative forms are also possible in clauses of this type if the action is regarded as a real one: She was afraid that he had changed his mind. 4. In object clauses after verbs and phrases expressing doubt (to doubt, to disbelieve, to have doubts, to greet with scepticism, etc.) and after some other verbs in the negative form the past subjunctive may be used. The subordinate clause is introduced by if or whether. We had doubts if it were possible to cross the river at this time of the year. I doubted she had even been there. 5. In object clauses referring to the formal it + objective predicative, expressing opinion of some situation, the choice of the form depends on the general meaning of the principal clause: We found it strange that he should speak so calmly after the events (the principal clause expresses the idea of disbelief, hence the form should speak is used). We regard it as highly probable that he may return soon (the principal clause expresses the idea of probability, hence the form may return is used). The subjunctive mood in appositive and predicative clauses 84. The choice of the form in these clauses is determined by the lexical meaning of the words these clauses follow or refer to. The order that we should come surprised me. (appositive clause) The order was that we should come. (predicative clause) His suggestion that we stop and have a look round the castle was rather sudden. (appositive clause) His suggestion was that we stop and have a look round the castle. (predicative clause) 1. The forms should + infinitive or the present subjunctive are used after nouns expressing wish, advice, desire, proposal, doubt, hesitation, fear, apprehension, etc. After the last two nouns the conjunction lest is used. Marys wish was that we should stay at her place as long as possible. (predicative clause) Your advice that he wait till next week is reasonable. (appositive clause) Our fear lest he should give away our secret was great. (appositive clause) Our fear was lest we should get lost in the forest. (predicative clause) 2. In predicative clauses joined by the link verbs to be, to seem, to look, to feel, to taste, to smell, etc. the past subjunctive or non-factual tense forms are used. In this case the clause has a comparative meaning and is accordingly introduced by the comparative conjunctions as if, as though. If the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action in the principal clause the past subjunctive or non-factual past indefinite is used. If the action is prior to that in the principal clause, the non-factual past perfect is used. He looked as if he were ill (his being ill is simultaneous with the time when his looks are commented upon). He looked as if he had been ill (his being ill was prior to the time his looks are commented upon). The house looked as if it had been deserted for years. I felt as though I were talking to a child. It was as if I were being attacked by an invisible enemy. Note: There is a tendency in informal style to use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive ones, especially if one is confident of the exactitude of the comparison. Ingrid looks as if she has a bath every morning. You sound as if youve got the whole world on your shoulders. The subjunctive mood in complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition 85. Complex sentences may include conditional clauses expressing real condition and unreal condition. In the first case the indicative mood is used, in the second the subjunctive. Both conditions may refer to the past, present or future. In sentences with real condition any form of the indicative may be used. If she heard it, she gave no sign. Why did he send us matches, If he knew there was no gas? If I have offended you, I am very sorry. You may go away if it bothers you. Now it was serious. If I had laughed about it before, I wasnt laughing now. If he was lying, he was a good actor. Since the majority of conditional clauses are introduced by if they are often called if-clauses. Other conjunctions used to introduce conditional clauses are unless, in case, supposing (that), suppose (that), providing (that), provided (that), on condition (that). Each of them expresses a conditional relation with a certain shade of meaning, and their use is restricted either for semantic or stylistic reasons. Thus unless has a negative meaning, although it is not identical with if not. Clauses introduced by unless indicate the only condition which may prevent the realization of the action in the main clause. Unless can be rendered in Russian by '5A;8 B>;L:> =5'. He is ruined unless he can get a million to pay off his debts. The Russian conjunction with negation 5A;8 =5 cannot be rendered by unless if the negation refers only to the part of the compound predicate. In this case if not should be used. 45=LAO B5?;55, 5A;8 =5 E>G5HL 701>;5BL. Put on a warm coat, if you don t want to catch cold. The conjunction in case has a specific shade of meaning, combining condition and purpose and may be translated into Russian as  =0 B>B A;CG09 5A;8'. Take an umbrella in case if rains. The conjunctions suppose (that) and supposing (that) retain their original meaning of supposition. The conjunctions provided (that) and providing (that) imply that the supposed condition is favourable or desirable. Suppose you get lost in the city, what will you do? Providing (that) there is no opposition we will hold the meeting here. These conjunctions may also introduce clauses of unreal condition. In complex sentences containing an unreal condition the subjunctive mood is used in both the conditional clause and in the principal clause, because the action expressed in the principal clause depends on the unreal condition and cannot be realized either. The choice of forms depends on the time-reference of the actions. 1. If the unreal actions in both the if-clause and the main clause refer to the present or future the non-factual past indefinite, or past continuous, or the past subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause and should/would + non-perfect common or continuous infinitive in the main clause. If I were a young man now, you wouldnt be looking for a porter. You wouldnt be talking that way unless you were hurt. I shouldnt speak to you unless I were determined. 2. If both actions refer to the past and contradict reality the non-factual past perfect or past perfect continuous is used in the if-clause and should/would + perfect or perfect continuous infinitive in the main clause. If he had not insisted upon her going there, nothing would ever have happened. Unless he had been grinning happily at us, I should have sworn he was mortally wounded. Clauses of unreal condition with the verb in the non-factual past perfect, past perfect continuous, past subjunctive (also should + infinitive and could + infinitive, see below) may be introduced asyndetically. In this case inversion serves as a means of subordination. Had the world been watching, it would have been startled. Were you in my place you would behave in the same way. 86. The actions in the main and subordinate clauses may have different time-reference, if the sense of the clauses requires it. Sentences of this kind are said to have split condition. The unreal condition may refer to the past and the consequence - to the present or future. If we hadnt been such fools we should all still be together. How much better I should write now if in my youth I had had the advantage of sensible advice! I shouldnt be bothering you like this if they hadnt told me downtown that he was coming up this way. Split condition is possible for sentences with real condition as well: If you saw him yesterday you know all the news. If you live in this part of the city you knew of the accident yesterday. The condition may refer to no particular time, and the consequence may refer to the past. She wouldnt have told me her story if she disliked me. John wouldnt have lost the key unless he were so absent-minded. 87. There are three more types of conditional clauses with reference to the future. 1. In the first type should + infinitive for all the persons is used in the conditional clause and the future indefinite indicative or the imperative mood in the principal clause. If you should meet him, give him my best regards. If you should find another way out, will you inform me? Conditional clauses of this type are sometimes joined to the main clause asyndetically, by means of inversion. Should he ask for references, tell him to apply to me. Should anything change, you will return home. In these sentences the action in the conditional clause is presented as possible, but very unlikely. Such clauses are called clauses of problematic condition. They may be rendered in Russian as A;CG8AL B0:, GB>... , 5A;8 A;CG09=>..., 5A;8 B0: A;CG8BAO, GB>..., 24@C3 GB>-=81C4L, etc. 2. In the second type would + infinitive for all the persons in the singular and plural is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the indicative mood in the main clause. Would retains its original meaning of willingness or consent (5A;8 1K 2K A>3;0A8;8AL, 87JO28;8 65;0=85, 70E>B5;8 1K). If you would only come to our place, we ll be very glad (we should be very glad). 3. In the third type the past subjunctive of the modal verb to be + (to) infinitive is used in the conditional clause and should/would + infinitive or the imperative mood in the principal clause. Both actions have future or present time-reference. If you were to undertake it, everything would be different (if by chance you undertook it). If I were to tell you everything, you would be amazed. - A;8 1K <=5 ?@8H;>AL @0AA:070BL 20< 2A5, 2K 1K C4828;8AL. The form were + to implies greater remoteness and improbability of the action, but does not imply a rejection of it. Sentences and clauses of implied condition 88. An implied condition is not openly stated in a clause, but is suggested either by an adverbial part of the sentence, or else by the context -from the preceding or following sentence, or coordinated clause. 1. The form should/would + infinitive is used in simple sentences with an adverbial modifier of condition introduced by but for, except for (5A;8 1K =5...) which imply an unreal condition with an opposite meaning: But for luck he would be still living alone. - A;8 1K =5 C40G0, >= 1K 2A5 5I5 68; 2 >48=>G5AB25. The implication is: if it had not been for luck, he would be still living alone. (In fact he was lucky and he is not living alone.) These people would long ago have been forgotten, but for the artists genius. Thats all I can remember. I wouldnt have remembered anything at all but for you. Except for the sound of his breathing, I wouldnt have known he was there. 2. As stated above a condition may be implied by the preceding or following sentence or coordinated clause: - What would you do if you had money? - Oh, I should do many things! This was the sort of thing he would have liked to explain to someone, only no one wanted to hear. (If anyone had wanted to hear, he would have explained this sort of thing to them.) They had no desire to spread scandal. Otherwise they would have demanded their due. (Had they had the desire to spread scandal, they would have demanded their due.) I would have gone too, but I was tied up to Joseph. (If I had not been tied up to Joseph, I would have gone too.) On the whole the non-factual use of tenses is rather rare in simple sentences, although they do occasionally occur. As a child I d given anything for that -  45BAB25 O 1K 2A5 >B40; 70 MB>. Modal verbs or phrases in conditional clauses 89. The modal verbs can, will, may/might are freely used in the non-factual past indefinite to express unreality in conditional and principal clauses. Like the mood auxiliaries should, would they may be combined with different infinitives: a)in main clauses  If I had timeI could go there I would go there I might go there I should go there b) in subordinate clauses If I could translate this article If he might translate this article If I would translate this article (if I consented to do it) If I translated this article it would be nice.  There may be a modal phrase in both clauses of the sentence, or in one clause only. If you would be frank with me I might perhaps be of more help. ... and had he so desired he might have been persona grata with the diplomatic set. If she could have been compressed to about three quarters of her actual width, she would have been very attractive. Anselmo grinned in the darkness. An hour ago he could not have imagined that he would ever smile again. I would have kept on going, if I hadnt had to leave Paris. The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of comparison 90. Several forms of subjunctive are used in clauses of comparison depending on the time-reference. 1. If the action in the comparative clause is simultaneous with that in the main clause, the non-factual past indefinite or past subjunctive is used. 2. If the action in the comparative clause is prior to that in the main clause, the non-factual past perfect is used. The usual conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are as if and as though. His eyes wandered as if he were at a loss. He paid no attention to us, as though we did not exist. Miss Handforth was holding a tea-pot as if it were a hand grenade. And so we faced each other after three years of letter-writing as if we had been having a beer every afternoon for years. 3. If the action in the subordinate clause is presented as following the action in the main clause would + infinitive is used. He was whistling gaily as if his heart would break for joy. The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of purpose 91. In clauses of purpose the form used depends on the conjunction introducing the clause. 1. After the conjunctions that, so that, in order that, so the quasi-subjunctive forms may (might) + infinitive or can (could) + infinitive are used. Only might and could are used if the action in the subordinate clause, though following the action in the main clause, refers to the past. But when the action refers to the present or future, both forms of each verb are possible (may or might, can or could). I tell you this so that you may understand the situation. She left the lamp on the window-sill, so that he might see it from afar. She gave him the book that he might have something to read on the journey. 2. After the negative conjunction lest (GB>1K =5) should + infinitive is generally used. The girl whispered these words lest somebody should overhear her. He was afraid to look behind lest he should see something there which ought not to be there. The subjunctive mood in adverbial clauses of concession 92. Concessive clauses may either be joined to the main clause asyndetically, or else be introduced by a connective (however, whoever, whatever, whenever), a conjunction (though, although, even if, even though); also by a phrase, such as no matter how, no matter when. If the action refers to the present or future the quasi-subjunctive form may + infinitive or present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause. If the action refers to the past may + perfect infinitive or perfect continuous infinitive, or might + infinitive is used. Forms with should + infinitive, would + infinitive, and non-factual tense forms are also possible, though less typical. He can be right, no matter whether his arguments be convincing or not. Tired as he may be he will always help me. Though he might have been suspicious he gave no sign. No matter how he might try he couldnt do it. Much as I would like to help, I didnt dare to interfere. When a concessive clause is joined asyndetically, there is usually inversion. The front position is occupied by the part, that states the circumstance despite which the action in the main clause is carried out. Thus it lends a concessive meaning to the clause. In the following sentences the concessive meaning is focused on the part of the predicate: Come what may, we shall remain here. Cost what it may, Ill give you the sum you ask. Tired as he might be, he continued his way. - 'B>1K =8 A;CG8;>AL ... - !:>;L:> 1K MB> =8 AB>8;>... - 0: 1K >= =8 CAB0; ... The focus of the concessive meaning may fall on the nominal or adverbial part of the clause. Whoever he may be, he has no right to be rude. Whatever you may say, our decision remains unchanged. Whichever of the two roads we may take, the distance is great. Wherever we might go, we found the same gloomy sight. Whenever I may ask him a question, he always has a ready answer. 5 will not convince us however hard he should try. - B> 1K >= =8 1K; ... - 'B>1K BK =8 3>2>@8; ... - > :0:>9 1K 87 42CE 4>@>3 <K =8 ?>H;8 ... - C40 1K <K =8 ?>H;8 ... - >340 1K O =8 7040; 5<C 2>?@>A ... - ... :0: 1K A8;L=> >= =8 ?KB0;AO. Concessive clauses introduced by even if, even though are built up on the same pattern as conditional clauses and the same subjunctive mood forms are used in the subordinate clause. Even if it were true, he couldnt say so. Even though he had proposed, nothing has changed since that day. Concessive meaning may be rendered by the indicative mood in the same patterns of clauses, if the fact despite which the action is carried out is a real one. Cold as it is, we shall go out. (it is really cold) Tired as he was, he continued his work. Though he was 36, he looked very old. It was not meant to offend you, no matter how ironic it sounded. The subjunctive mood in simple sentences 93. Besides cases when the subjunctive mood forms are used in simple sentences to express an unreal action as a consequence of an implied condition (see 88), these forms are also used in simple sentences of the following kind: 1. In exclamatory sentences beginning with if only to express a wish. They follow the same pattern as conditional clauses, and would + infinitive, past subjunctive, non-factual tense forms are used. If only it were true! If only I knew what to do! If only I had listened to my parents! If only it would stop raining! If only we could have stopped him! 2. In exclamatory sentences to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts (surprise and disbelief). Here should + infinitive is used. And this should happen just on this day! That it should be you of all people! 3. In questions expressing astonishment or indignation the analytical form should + infinitive is used: Why should you and I talk about it? How should I know? Why should you suspect me? Why should you not do it? The traditional use of the subjunctive mood in formulaic expressions 94. These forms remained as survivals of old usage and they are used as wholes, in which no element of structure can be omitted or replaced. Most of them have a religious origin and express a wish or a prayer: God bless you! (Bless you!) God save the king! Heaven forbid! The Devil take him! In many cases, however, formulaic expressions may be expanded by variable elements (parts of the sentence or clauses), thus making productive patterns in Modern English. They vary in their meaning, although mostly express a wish. Among them are: 1. Forms used in slogans: Long live the Army! Long live patriotism! Long live the fighters for peace! Long live heroes!; 2. Forms used in oaths, curses, and imprecations: Manners be hanged! Confound your ideas! Confound the politics! Far be it from me to spoil the fan! Far be it from me to conceal the truth! Far be it from me to argue with you! Far be it from me to talk back! - 'B>1K O E>B5; 8A?>@B8BL 20< =0AB@>5=85! - 'B>1K O A:@K20; ?@024C! - 'B>1K O AB0; A?>@8BL! - 'B>1K O 3@C18;! Forms with may + infinitive, unlike modern forms with the same verb, retain the old word order: May success attend you! May you be happy! May he win! The subjunctive mood forms with had better, had best, would rather, would sooner are used in sentences denoting wish, admonition, preference, advice. Very often they are used in a contracted form: Youd better go at once. You had best take note of my direction if you wish to make sure of it. Formulaic expressions with concessive meaning are used in complex sentences as concessive clauses:  Happen what may, Come what will, Come what may, Cost what it may,  we shall not yield. The formulaic expression as it were (B0: A:070BL) is used as parenthesis, emphasizing that the content of the sentence is highly figurative or non-real: ... there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotion. He is my best friend, my second self, as it were. Table III The subjunctive mood forms Types of Sentences Synthetic Forms Analytical Forms Non-Factual Tense FormsSimple sentence Ideas be hanged! If only that were true!May it come true! I should like to see this film.If I only knew! Complex sentence with a subject clause It is required that all be present. It is important that all should come. It is likely he may come.It is time the boy came. Complex sentence with a predicative clause He looks as if he were surprised. It looks as if the weather may change. The order is that we should move.It seems as if everybody knew. It looks as if he had known it long ago.Complex sentence with an appositive clause The order that we should move surprised us. Complex sentence with an object clause I wish he were here. He ordered that we should come. We feared lest he should find it out. I wish he would come.I wish I knew it. I wish I had never met him. Complex sentence The stranger looked  He glanced at me as if hewith an adverbial at me as if he were  knew. clause of comparison surprised.  The girl spoke as if she    had learned it all by    heart. Complex sentence with It is true whether it be Tired as he might be, he an adverbial concessive convincing or not. continued his way. clause Though he might be tired, he continued    his way.    He will not manage it   however hard he should try.    Whatever faults the book may    have, it is interesting enough.    He would not have come even if we had warned   him.   Complex sentence with  I tell you this so that you may  an adverbial clause of  understand the situation.  purpose  We put the matches away lest   the baby should find the box.  Complex sentence with If I were you ... I should not object to it.  an adverbial conditional  I should come ... if I knew the address clause  I should have called on you   yesterday ... if I had known the address   Should I meet him, I shall tell   him about it.  NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (VERBALS) 95. There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken). These forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can be used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.) Lexically non-finites do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between the two types of forms lies in the fact that non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to that expressed by the finite verb. Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial. In the sphere of syntax, however, non-finites possess both verbal and non-verbal features. Their non-verbal character reveals itself in their syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate. Syntactically the verbal character of non-finites is manifested mainly in their combinability. Similarly to finite forms they may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or prepositional objects, with adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses. Non-finites may also work as link verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as predicatives, as in: to be/being a doctor (young, afraid). They may also act as modal verb semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive: to have/having to wait, to be able/being able to stay. So the structure of a non-finite verb group resembles the structure of any verb phrase. All non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions, that is, two-component syntactical units where a noun or a pronoun and a non-finite verb form are in predicative relations similar to those of the subiect and the predicate: I heard Jane singing; We waited for the train to pass; I saw him run, etc. The Infinitive 96. The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way. As such, it is naturally treated as the initial form of the verb, which represents the verb in dictionaries (much in the same way as the common case singular represents the noun). In all its forms and functions the infinitive has a special marker, the particle to. The particle to is generally used with the infinitive stem and is so closely connected with it that does not commonly allow any words to be put between itself and the stem. Occasionally, however, an adverb or particle may be inserted between them: She doesnt want to even see me once more. The infinitive thus used is called the split infinitive, and is acceptable only to give special emphasis to the verb. Although the particle to is very closely connected with the infinitive, sometimes the bare infinitive stem is used. The cases where the infinitive loses its marker are very few in number. The use of the Infinitive without the Particle to (Bare Infinitive)  Words and phrases  The rest of the  followed by a bare Bare infinitive sentence  infinitive   1 2 3 4  Auxiliary verbs:   I Dont like Jogging. They Will see you to-morrow.  Modal verbs:    (except ought to,   have to, be to)   You cant play football in the street. I must go there to-morrow. You neednt worry.   Modal expression:   You had better   I would rather    would sooner   She d sooner die than come back You had better come at once.  Verbs of sense   I He perception: (see, watch, observe, notice, hear, listen to, feel, etc.) felt somebody heard the door  touch close.  me.   Verbs of inducement: (let, make, have, bid)   What  Let me makes you  help think  you. so?   Phrases with but:    cannot but, do anything but do nothing but couldnt but   Did you do anything but ask questions?  Why-not sentences: Why not  begin  at once?  Like other non-finite forms of the verb the infinitive has a double nature: it combines verbal features with those of the noun. The verbal features of the infinitive are of two kinds: morphological and syntactical. 1) Morphological: the infinitive has the verb categories of voice, perfect and aspect: The evening is the time to praise the day. (active) To be praised for what one has not done was bad enough. (passive) She did not intend to keep me long, she said. (non-perfect) I am so distressed to have kept you waiting, (perfect) She promised to bring the picture down in the course of ten minutes. (common) At that time I happened to be bringing him some of the books borrowed from him two days before, (continuous) 2) Syntactical: the infinitive possesses the verb combinability: a) it takes an object in the same way as the corresponding finite verbs do; b)it takes a predicative if it happens to be a link verb; c) it is modified by adverbials in the same way as finite verbs: Infinitive Finite verbTo tell him about it the same night was out of the question. She did not mean to depend on her father. She wanted to be a teacher. I dont want to look pale tonight. c) To draw his attention I had to speak very loudly.She told me about it only yesterday. You see, I depend on his word only. He was a teacher of French. She looked pale and haggard. He spoke loudly, turning his head from side to side.  The nominal features of the infinitive are revealed only in its function: To understand is to forgive. (subject, predicative) Thats what I wanted to know. (object) I saw the chance to escape into the garden. (attribute) I merely came back to water the roses, (adverbial modifier of purpose) The Grammatical Categories of the Infinitive 97. As has already been stated the infinitive has three grammatical categories, those of perfect, voice, and aspect. The system of grammatical categories of the infinitive is shown in the table below. Table IV  Perfect Voice Active Passive AspectNon-Perfect Common to go to take- to be takenContinuous to be going to be taking- (to be being taken)Perfect Common to have gone to have taken- to have been takenContinuous to have been going to have been taking- - It is seen from the table, that the passive voice is found only with transitive verbs and there are no perfect continuous forms in the passive voice. As for the non-perfect continuous passive, forms similar to the one in brackets, do sometimes occur, although they are exceptionally rare. The category of perfect 98. The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect infinitive denotes an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb (I am glad to take part in it, I am glad to be invited there), The perfect infinitive always denotes an action prior to that of the finite verb - the predicate of the sentences. The meaning of priority is invariable with the perfect and perfect continuous infinitive.  I am glad I was glad I shall be glad  to have seen you again.  The non-perfect infinitive is vaguer and more flexible in meaning and its meaning may easily be modified by the context. Thus, it may denote an action preceding or following the action denoted by the finite verb. It expresses succession, that is indicates that the action follows the action denoted by the finite verb, as in the following cases: 1) When used as an adverbial modifier of purpose: She bit her lip to keep back a smile. I came here to help you, not to quarrel with you. 2) When used as part of a compound verbal predicate: You must do it at once. You know, she is beginning to learn eagerly. 3) When used as an object of a verb of inducement: He ordered the man to come at three. She always asks me to help her when she is busy. He will make you obey. The category of aspect 99. The category of aspect finds its expression in contrasting forms of the common aspect and the continuous aspect. The difference between the category of aspect in finite verb forms and in the infinitive is that in the infinitive it is consistently expressed only in the active voice: to speak to have spoken- to be speaking - to have been speaking The passive voice has practically no aspect oppositions. (See Table IV). The semantics of the category of aspect in the infinitive is the same as in the finite verb: the continuous aspect forms denote an action in progress at some moment of time in the present, past, or future; the meaning of the common aspect forms is flexible and is easily modified by the context. The two aspects differ in their frequency and functioning; the continuous aspect forms are very seldom used and cannot perform all the functions in which the common aspect forms are used. They can function only as: 1) subject (To be staying with them was a real pleasure.); 2) object (I was glad to be waking.) 3) part of a compound verbal predicate (Now they must be getting back; The leaves begin to be growing yellowish.) The continuous aspect forms do not occur in the function of adverbial - modifiers and attributes. The category of voice 100. The infinitive of transitive verbs has the category of voice, similar to all other verb forms: to say to have saidto be said to have been said The active infinitive points out that the action is directed from the subject (either expressed or implied), the passive infinitive indicates that the action is directed to the subject: ActivePassive He expected to find them very soon.They expected to be found by night fall.  She was born to love . She born to be loved.  I know I ought to have told you everything long ago. She ought to have been told of what had actually happened. However, there are cases where the active form of the non-perfect infinitive denotes an action directed towards the subject, that is although active in form it is passive in meaning:  His to blame.  The house is to let.  The question is difficult to answer.  There was only one thing to do. The active infinitive thus used is called retroactive. The retroactive infinitive is rather productive although in nearly all cases it can be replaced by the corresponding passive form: He is to blame > He is to be blamed. There was only one thing to do > There was only one thing to be done. Syntactical functions of the infinitive 101. The infinitive performs almost all syntactical functions characteristic of the noun, although in each of them it has certain peculiarities of its own. In all syntactical functions the infinitive may be used: 1) alone, that is, without any words depending on it: She would like to dance. 2) as the headword of an infinitive phrase, that is, with one or more words depending on it: She would like to dance with him tonight. 3) as part of an infinitive predicative construction, that is, as a logical predicate to some nominal element denoting the logical subject of the infinitive: She would like him to dance with her. She waited for him to dance first. As to the functioning of single infinitives and infinitive phrases, they are identical in this respect and therefore will be used without distinction in illustrations. However it should be noted that in fact the infinitive phrase is much more common than the single infinitive. The infinitive as subject 102. The infinitive functioning as subject may either precede the predicate or follow it. In the latter case it is introduced by the so-called introductory it, which is placed at the beginning of the sentence: To be good is to be in harmony with oneself. Its so silly to be fussy and jealous. The second of these structural patterns is more common than the first, and the subject in this pattern is more accentuated (compare for example: Its impossible to do it and To do it is impossible). The other difference is that in the second case the sentence can be both declarative and interrogative, while in the first one the sentence can only be declarative: Declarative sentences Its nice to see you again. It was not a good idea to bring her hereTo find him still at home was a relief. To see her again did not give him the usual pleasure. Interrogative sentences Is it bad to love one so dearly? Wasnt it a waste of time to sit there? The infinitive subject in both structural patterns is a to - infinitive. If there are two or more homogeneous infinitive subjects in a sentence, all of them keep the particle to: To be alone, to be free from the daily interests and cruelty would be happiness to Asako. It was awfully difficult to do or even to say nothing at all. The function of the subject can be performed by the infinitive of any voice, aspect and perfect form, although the common aspect non-perfect active forms are naturally far more frequent. To expect too much is a dangerous thing. To be walking through the fields all alone seemed an almost impossible pleasure. To have seen her was even a more painful experience. To be recognized, to be greeted by some local personage afforded her a joy which was very great. To have been interrogated in such a way was a real shock to him. 103. The predicate of the subject expressed by an infinitive always takes the form of the 3rd person singular. As to its type, it is usually a compound nominal predicate with the link verb to be, although other link verbs may also occur, as well as a verbal predicate. To acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly is the first duty of the artist. To understand is to forgive. To talk to him bored me. To see the struggle frightened him terribly. To write a really good book requires more time than I have. The infinitive as part of the predicate The infinitive is used in predicates of several types, both nominal and verbal. The infinitive as predicative 104. In the function of a predicative the to-infinitive is used in compound nominal predicates after the link verb to be: His dearest wish was to have a son. With homogeneous predicatives the use of the particle to varies. If the infinitives are not linked by conjunctions, the particle is generally used with all of them: My intention was to see her as soon as possible, to talk to her, to calm her. If they are linked by the conjunctions and or or the particle to is generally used with the first infinitive only: Your duty will be to teach him French and play with him. His plan was to ring her up at once, or even call on her. The use of the infinitive as a predicative has some peculiarities. 1) In sentences with an infinitive subject the predicative infinitive denotes an action that follows, or results from, the action of the subject infinitive. To see her was to admire her. To come there at this hour was to risk ones life. Sentences in which both the infinitives are used without any modifiers are usually of aphoristic meaning: To hear is to obey. To see is to believe. To define is to limit. The predicative function is generally performed by the common non-perfect active forms of the infinitive. Still passive forms sometimes occur: To be born in poverty was to be doomed to humiliation. 2) The set of nouns that can function as the subject of a compound nominal predicate with an infinitive predicative is very limited. It includes about 50 nouns describing situations: action advice aim ambition attempt business consequence custom desire difficulty duty experiencefunction habit happiness hope idea ideal instruction intention job method need objectorder plan principle problem purpose reason risk role rule task thing wish, etc.  A predicative infinitive phrase may be introduced by the conjunctive, adverbs and pronouns how, when, where, what, whom, the choice depending on the lexical meaning of the noun: Now the question was what to tell him. The problem was how to begin. 3) The function of the subject may be also performed by the pronoun all or the substantivized superlatives the most and the least with an attributive clause attached to them: All he wanted was to be left alone. The least I can expect is to have this day all to myself. In such cases the predicative infinitive can lose its marker to: All I can do is get you out of here. 4) Occasionally the function of the subject can be performed by a gerund or a what-clause: Living with hemophilia was to live off balance all the time. What we want to do, said Brady, is to fight a world. The infinitive as simple nominal predicate 105. The infinitive as simple nominal predicate may be used in exclamatory sentences expressing the speakers rejection of the idea that the person to whom the action of the infinitive is ascribed is likely to perform this action, or belong to such sort of people*, as in: * For details see Syntax 41. You - of all men - to say such a thing! Me - to be your lover! As a rule the infinitive in exclamatory sentences is used with the particle to, although it occasionally occurs without it: Me - marry him! Never! The infinitive may be also used as predicate in interrogative infinitive why-sentences, both affirmative and negative, where it expresses a suggestion: Why let him sleep so long? Why not go away? In such sentences the infinitive is always used without the particle to. The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate 106. The infinitive is used in compound verbal predicates of three types. I. In a compound verbal modal predicate after the modal verbs can, may, might, ought, must, shall, should, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have, and expressions with modal meaning had better, would rather. I can tell you nothing at all about him. She ought to have told me before. II. In a compound verbal phasal predicate after verbs denoting various stages of the action, such as its beginning, continuation, or end. These verbs (to begin, to come, to start, to continue, to go on, to cease, etc.) followed by a to-infinitive form a compound verbal phasal predicate. Now I begin to understand you. Then she came to realize what it all meant. They continued to whisper. The verbs to begin, to continue and to start can also be followed by a gerund, although with a certain difference in meaning. Thus the verb to stop followed by a gerund means to put an end to an action, to interrupt, whereas followed by an infinitive means to pause in order to do something. So the infinitive after the verb to stop is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose. He stopped to see what it was. = >AB0=>28;AO, GB>1K ?>A<>B@5BL, GB> MB> B0:>5.He stopped seeing her. = ?5@5AB0; A =59 2AB@5G0BLAO. III. The compound verbal predicate of double orientation* has no analogy in Russian. The three subtypes of this predicate can be distinguished according to the expression of the first part: * For details see Syntax 53. 1. The first part is expressed by one of the following intransitive verbs in the active voice: to seem - :070BLAO; to appear - >:070BLAO, :070BLAO; to prove, to turn out - >:070BLAO; to happen, to chance - A;CG0BLAO. After the verbs to prove and to turn out the infinitive is mostly nominal, that is presented by to be + noun or adjective. After the verbs to seem, to appear, to happen all types and forms of the infinitive are possible. Simple sentences with this type of predicate are synonymous with complex sentences of a certain pattern: He seems to be smiling. She appeared to have said all.It seems that he is smiling. It appeared that she had said all. Sentences with compound verbal predicates of double orientation are translated into Russian in different ways depending on the meaning of the first verbal element: The strange little man seemed to read my thoughts. The man seemed to have come from far off. Nothing appeared to be happening there. 5 appeared to have been running all the way. 5 proved to be a healthy child. The night turned out to be cold. Don t you happen to know her?!B@0==K9 G5;>25G5:, :070;>AL, G8B0; <>8 <KA;8. 070;>AL, MB>B G5;>25: ?@85E0; >B:C40-B> 8740;5:0. 070;>AL, GB> 745AL =8G53> =5 ?@>8AE>48B. 070;>AL, GB> >= ?@>1560; 2AN 4>@>3C 153><. = >:070;AO 74>@>2K< @515=:><. >GL >:070;0AL E>;>4=>9. "K 55 A;CG09=> =5 7=05HL? 2. The first part of the predicate is expressed by the passive voice forms of certain transitive verbs. They are: a) verbs of saying: to announce, to declare, to report, to say, to state, etc. She was announced to be the winner. 5 is said to have returned at last.K;> >1JO2;5=>, GB> ?>1548;0 >=0. >2>@OB, GB> >= =0:>=5F 25@=C;AO. b) verbs of mental activity: to believe, to consider, to expect, to find, to known, to mean, to presume, to regard, to suppose, to think, to understand, etc. He s supposed to be leaving tonight. She is believed to be a clever girl. Her father was thought to have died long ago.@54?>;030NB (?@54?>;0305BAO), GB> >= C57605B A53>4=O 25G5@><. 5 AG8B0NB C<=>9 452CH:>9. (!G8B05BAO, GB> >=0 C<=0O 452CH:0.) !G8B0;>AL (AG8B0;8, 4C<0;8, ?>;030;8), GB> 55 >B5F 402=K<-402=> C<5@. verbs of sense perception: to feel, to hear, to see, to watch. Soon he was heard to open the front door. She was often seen to walk all alone.A:>@5 CA;KH0;8, :0: >= >B:@K; ?0@04=CN 425@L. '0AB> 2845;8, :0: >=0 3C;O5B A>2A5< >4=0. d) the verb to make. He was made to keep silent.3> 70AB028;8 <>;G0BL. 3. The first part is expressed by the phrases: to be likely, to be unlikely, to be sure, to be certain. In this case only the non-perfect forms of the infinitive are used, with future reference. She is likely to be late. He is sure to become your friend. They are sure to be wanted as evidence. In all these three subtypes the to - infinitive is always used. The infinitive as object 107. The infinitive can have the function of object after verbs, adjectives, adjectivized participles and statives. After verbs the infinitive may be either the only object of a verb or one of two objects. 1. Verbs that take only one object are: to agree, to arrange, to attempt, to care (to like), to choose, to claim, to consent, to decide, to deserve, to determine, to expect, to fail, to fear, to forget, to hesitate, to hope, to intend, to learn, to like, to long, to love, to manage, to mean, to neglect, to omit, to plan, to prefer, to pretend, to refuse, to regret, to remember, to swear, to tend, etc. She agreed to come at ten. He planned to spend the day in town. Youll soon learn to read, sonny. Among these verbs two groups can be distinguished: a) the verbs to claim, to fail, to forget, to hate, to like, to omit, to regret, to remember, to swear, with which the perfect infinitive denotes actions prior to those of the finite verbs. It can be accounted for by the fact that semantically these verbs denote an action or state following or resulting from that of the infinitive (you can regret only what was or has been done). I regret to have said it to her. I remembered to have met him once. She claims to have seen him before. b) The verbs to attempt, to expect, to hope, to intend, to mean, to plan, to try, when followed by the perfect infinitive imply that the action of the infinitive was not fulfilled. I hoped to have found him at home. He intended to have reached the coast long before. In this case the finite verb can be used only in the past tense. Note: As most of these verbs (item la) and b)) denote an attitude to the action expressed by the infinitive, the verb + infinitive may be treated syntactically as one whole. Thus the succession of two verbs (... like to help ..., ... expect to arrive ..., ... plan to do ...) allow of two modes of analysis, as a verb + its object or as a compound verbal predicate with the first element expressing attitude.  Besides the above-mentioned verbs there are also some rather common phrases used with the infinitive-object. They are the phrases can afford, can bear in the negative or interrogative and such phrases as to make sure, to make up ones mind, to take care, to take the trouble. Can you afford to buy it yourself? I cant bear to hear of it again. At last he made up his mind to answer Sibyls letter. 2. Verbs that take two objects, the first of which is a noun or a pronoun and the second an infinitive. These are the verbs of inducement; they all have the general meaning to persuade, to cause to do something. to advise to allow to ask to beg to cause to command to compelto direct to encourage to forbid to force to have to impel to imploreto induce to instruct to invite to leave to let to make to orderto permit to persuade to recommend to request to require to tell to urge Tell him to hurry. He asked her to keep an eye on the clock. What would you recommend me to do? With all these verbs, except to have, to let and to make, a to- infinitive is used. After the verbs to have, to let and to make it loses the particle to. Shell have you do it at once. Dont let it bother you. Soon she made me see where I was wrong. The object, which is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case, denotes a person (or, very seldom, a non-person) who is to perform the required action expressed by the infinitive. The verb to help can be used either with one or with two objects: She helped to pack. She helped me to make up my mind. In either case a to- infinitive or a bare infinitive can be used. And she actually helped find it. Ill help you do it. With some verbs the function of object may be performed by a conjunctive infinitive phrase. These verbs are very few in number and fall into two groups: a) Verbs that can take either an infinitive or a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object. These are: to advise, to decide, to forget, to learn, to remember. They advised me to go on. He decided to begin at once. I forgot to tell you about the last incident.He advised me at last how to settle the matter. He could not decide whether to come at all. I forgot how to do it.  b) Verbs that can take only a conjunctive infinitive phrase as their object: to know, to show, to wonder. She did not know what to say. I know well enough where to stop. Will you show me how to do it? The infinitive can have the function of object after certain adjectives (adjectivized participles), mostly used as predicatives. Semantically and structurally these fall into two groups. 1. The most frequent adjectives of the first group are: anxious, apt, bound, careful, curious, determined, difficult, eager, easy, entitled, fit, free, hard, impatient, inclined, interested, keen, liable, powerless, prepared, quick, ready, reluctant, resolved, set, slow, worthy. Shes determined to go on. I am powerless to do anything. Hes fully prepared to meet them any time they choose. I was so impatient to start. When used with these adjectives, the infinitive denotes actions either simultaneous with, or posterior to, the states expressed by the predicates, and cannot therefore be used in perfect forms. 2. The most frequent adjectives (adjectivized participles) of the second group are: amused, annoyed, astonished, delighted, distressed, frightened, furious, glad, grateful, happy, horrified, pleased, proud, puzzled, relieved, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, touched. He was amused to hear it. Im delighted to see you again, darling. She is proud to have grown such a son. Mother was furious to see them together again. These adjectives and participles express certain psychological states which are the result of the action expressed by the infinitive object, so the latter therefore always denotes an action slightly preceding the state expressed by the predicate, and can have both non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect forms are used to express immediate priority, that is, an action immediately preceding the state: Im glad to see you (I see you and that is why I am glad). The perfect forms are used to show that there is a gap between the action and the resulting state. I am glad to have seen you (I saw/have seen you and that is why I am glad). 3. After certain statives denoting psychological states, such as afraid, agog, ashamed: He was ashamed to tell us this. Id be afraid to step inside a house that Rupert had designed all by himself. In such cases the infinitive points out the source of the state expressed by the stative. The infinitive as attribute 108. The English infinitive functioning as an attribute is far more frequent than the Russian infinitive. This is because in Russian the infinitive attribute can combine with abstract nouns only, while in English it is used with a much wider range of words. In this function the infinitive always denotes a not yet fulfilled action, which is regarded as desirable, possible, advisable, necessary, etc. The modal meaning of the infinitive attribute is generally rendered in Russian by modal verbs or expressions, as is shown by the translations below. The infinitive attribute can modify: 1. nouns, both abstract and concrete: Because of his quarrel with his family he was in no position to get the news. (... =5 <>3 ?>;CG8BL 8725AB89) The best thing to do would be to go back. (A0<>5 ;CGH55, GB> <>6=> 1K;> A45;0BL ...) 5 is just the man to do it. (>= :0: @07 B>B G5;>25:, :>B>@K9 <>65B/4>;65= MB> A45;0BL) I suppose there was nothing to he done, but depart. (=8G53> =5;L7O 1K;> A45;0BL, >AB020;>AL B>;L:> C40;8BLAO) 2. indefinite, negative and universal pronouns in -body, -thing, - one (one): Have you anything to offer me? (K <>65B5 <=5 GB>-=81C4L ?@54;>68BL?) 5 was someone to admire. (... B>B, :5< <>6=> 2>AE8I0BLAO) 5 had everything to make his life a happy one. (...GB> <>3;> A45;0BL 53> AG0AB;82K<) Occasionally the infinitive can have the function of an attribute to personal negative and reflexive pronouns or pronominal adverbs: I ve only you to look to. Oh, but you have only yourself to praise. Now I had nobody to see, nowhere to go. 3. substantivized ordinal numerals (especially first), substantivized adjectives (next and last). Jack was the first to come. She was the last to reach the hall. 4. substantivized quantitative adjectives much, little, (no) more, (no) less, little more, enough: A man in your position has so much to lose. Ive no more to add. 5. the noun-substitute one: I am not the one to run about and discuss my affairs with other people. (... :B> <>65B ...) 109. The most common form of the infinitive functioning as an attribute is the non-perfect common aspect active voice form and non-perfect common aspect passive form. When performing the function of an attribute a  to- infinitive is always used. If there are two or more homogeneous attributes the second (and the following) retain to if joined asyndetically, but drop it if joined by conjunctions. There was, however, my little Jean to look after, to take care of. Did he give you any small parcel to bring back and deliver to anyone in England? 110. The infinitive as an attribute may be introduced by conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: He had sought in vain for inspiration how to awaken love. I had now an idea what to do. The conjunctive infinitive phrase may be preceded by a preposition: They had no knowledge of how to live on. Hes got no information about when to start. The infinitive as adverbial modifier 111. The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of: purpose, subsequent events, consequence, attendant circumstances, comparison, condition, exception, time, cause, or motivation. In all these functions but that of the adverbial modifier of exception, a to- infinitive is used. 1. The adverbial modifier of purpose. In this function the action denoted by the infinitive is always a hypothetical one following the action denoted by the predicate. As such it can be expressed only by non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive (both active and passive): I think I will go to England to improve my English. We stood in the rain and were taken out one at a time to be questioned and shot. In this function a to- infinitive is used, but if there are two or more homogeneous adverbials of purpose joined by and, usually, though not necessarily, only the first of them has the particle to. Compare the following sentences: Mary, looking pale and worried, left him to go down to the kitchen and start breakfast. Then I went upstairs to say how-do-you-do to Emily, and into the kitchen to shake hands with Mary-Ann, and out into the garden to see the gardener. The position of the infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of purpose varies. It usually stands after the predicate, though the position at the beginning of the sentence is also possible: To occupy her mind, however, she took the job given her. In both positions the infinitive may be preceded by the conjunction in order, so as or by limiting particle (just, only): I keep a diary in order to enter the wonderful secrets of my life. In order to see her better he had to turn his head. Im here just to see you off. He came down only to say good-night to you. 2. The adverbial modifier of subsequent events. In this function the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one denoted by the predicate. The position of this adverbial in the sentence is fixed - it always follows the predicate. The only forms of the infinitive occurring in this function are those of the non-perfect common aspect, usually active. He arrived at three oclock to hear that Fleur had gone out with the car at ten. (He arrived and heard ...) I came down one morning to find Papa excited to the point of apoplexy. (I came down and found ...) He hurried to the house only to find it empty. (He hurried and found ...) In this function the infinitive may be preceded by the particles only, merely, simply, which change the meaning of the whole sentence: the action denoted by the infinitive preceded by these particles makes the action denoted by the predicate pointless or irrelevant. She returned to London in a few days, only to learn that Bess had gone to the continent. (She returned ..., and learnt...) 3. As an adverbial modifier of consequence the infinitive depends on a) adjectives and adverbs modified by too; b) adjectives, adverbs and nouns modified by enough; c) adjectives modified by so, and nouns modified by such. In the last two cases the infinitive is introduced by as: 5 was too tired to argue. (= He was so fired, that is why he couldnt arque) The story was too interesting to be passed over lightly. He had gone too far to draw back. b) Hes old enough to learn this. (= He is old enough, so he can learn this) I thought I liked Letty well enough to marry her. (=1 liked Letty, so I wanted to marry her) He was fool enough to enjoy the game. He had seen enough blasted, burned out tanks to have no illusions. c) She was so kind as to accept my proposal. (= She was so kind, therefore she accepted my proposal) Do you think I am such a fool as to let it out of my hands? In all these cases the infinitive denotes an action, which would become or became possible (enough, so, such) or impossible (too) due to the degree of quality or quantity expressed in the words it refers to. The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the words it modifies. The form of the infinitive is non-perfect, common aspect, usually active. . 4. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances shows what other actions take place at the same time as the action of the predicate. He left the house never to come back. I am sorry to have raised your expectations only to disappoint you. The infinitive thus used always follows the predicate verb it modifies. As to its form, it is a non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form. 5. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of comparison refers to predicate groups including adjectives or adverbs in the comparative degree. The infinitive itself is introduced by than: To give is more blessed than to receive. Soon she realized, that it was much more pleasant to give than to be given. He knew better than to rely on her. Although the infinitive of comparison is generally used with to, it may also occur without it: I was more inclined to see her safely married than go on watching over her. 6. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of condition denotes an action which pre-conditions the action expressed by the predicate. To look at Montmorency you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon earth ... (If you looked ..., you would imagine ...) To touch it one would believe that it was the best of furs. (If one touched it, one would believe ...) Ill thank you to take your hands off me. (Ill thank you, if you take ...) The position of this infinitive as can be seen from the examples above varies; it may either precede or follow the predicate verb it modifies. The only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form. 7. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of exception denotes the action which is the only possible one in the situation. The infinitive is generally used without to and is introduced by the prepositions but and except. It is found in negative and interrogative sentences: I had nothing to do but wait. What could I do but submit? There is nothing to do except turn back. 8. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of time denotes an action which marks out the moment of time up to which or at which the action of the predicate is performed. Very often it has a secondary meaning of condition. His father lived to be ninety. (lived till he was ...) I may not live to reach the airstrip this afternoon. (may not live till I reach ...) Go away! I shudder to see you here. (I shudder when I see ..., if I see ...) The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the predicate it modifies. Its form is non-perfect, common aspect, active. 9. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of cause or motivation refers to a compound nominal predicate with the predicative expressed by an adjective, a noun, or a prepositional phrase denoting someone's qualities (intellectual qualities, morals, etc.) The infinitive denotes an action which serves as a cause or a motivation on which this or that charaterisation is based. What an idiot I was not to have thought of it before! (I had not thought of it before, therefore I can justly be called an idiot.) She was silly to come here. (She came here, and it was silly of her.) Theyre out of their mind to have sent you here! (They have sent you here, so one can think them out of their minds.) The infinitive in this function follows the predicate. All the forms of the infinitive are possible. The infinitive as parenthesis 112. The infinitive used as parenthesis is usually part of a collocation, as in: to begin with, to be (quite) frank, to be sure, to make matters worse, to put it mildly, to say the least, to tell the truth, needless to say, strange to say, so to speak, to make a long story short, to crown all, to be more precise, to say nothing of ..., etc. To begin with, you have been lying to me all the time. To be quite frank, I dont like him at all. He was, strange to say, just an ordinary little chap. Predicative constructions with the infinitive 113. The infinitive is used in predicative constructions of three types: the objective with the infinitive construction, and the so-called for-to-infinitive construction*. Traditionally they are called the complex subject, the complex object, and the for-to-infinitive complex. * It is possible, however, to distinguish one more infinitive construction generally called the subjective infinitive construction or the nominative infinitive construction. (See 123 on the Subjective predicative construction). In all these constructions the infinitive denotes an action ascribed to the person or non-person, though grammatically this relationship is not expressed in form: the doer of the action may be represented by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective case (I saw him cross the street, it is for him to decide this) and the verbal element which is not in a finite form. Still, due to their semantics and because of the attached position the nominal and the verbal elements are understood as forming a complex with subject-predicate relationship. The for-to-infinitive construction 114. In the for-to-infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case introduced by the preposition for. The construction is used where the doer of the action (or the bearer of the state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of the finite verb (the predicate): The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is the same:The doer of the action of the finite verb and of the infinitive is not the same: He longed to see the truth. - = >G5=L E>B5; C7=0BL ?@024C. All I want is to get out of here for good. - 48=AB25==>5, G53> O E>GC, - MB> =02A5340 C5E0BL >BAN40.He longed for me to see the truth.- = >G5=L E>B5;, GB>1K O C7=0; ?@024C. All I want is for Jack to get out of here for good. - 48=AB25==>5, G53> O E>GC, - MB> GB>1K 65: =02A5340 C5E0; >BAN40.  The for-to-infinitive construction has the same functions as a single infinitive, though with some restrictions. 1. Subject. The for-to-infinitive construction in the function of the subject usually occurs in sentences with the introductory it, though it is occasionally placed at the head of the sentence: It was difficult for him to do anything else. For me to hear him was disturbing. 2. Predicative. In this function the construction is mostly used with the link verb to be: The best thing is for you to do it now. 3. Object. The construction functions as object of both verbs and adjectives: a) She watched for the door to open. I dont think I should care for it to be known. b) His family were anxious for him to do something. Im so glad for you to have come at last. 4. Attribute: There was no need for him to be economical. 5. Adverbial modifier of purpose and consequence: She paused for him to continue. The wall was too high for anything to be visible. He had said enough for me to get alarmed. In all its uses this construction is generally rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause. The objective with the infinitive construction 115. In the objective with the infinitive construction the infinitive (usually an infinitive phrase) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case (hence the name of the construction). The whole construction forms a complex object of some verbs. It is rendered in Russian by an object clause. The objective with the infinitive construction is used in the following cases: 1. After verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice and some others). In this case the only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect common aspect active voice form, used without the particle to: No one has ever heard her cry. I paused a moment and watched the tram-car stop. The verb to listen to, though not a verb of sense perception, is used in the same way, with a bare infinitive: He was listening attentively to the chairman speak. If the verb to see or to notice is used with the meaning to realize, or the verb to hear with the meaning to learn, the objective with the infinitive construction cannot be used. Here only subordinate object clause is possible: I saw that he did not know anything. I hear you have dropped the idea of leaving him. 5 only had time to notice that the girl was unusually pretty./ 2845; (?>=8<0;), GB> >= =8G53> =5 7=05B. / A;KH0;0 (C7=0;0), GB> BK >B:070;0AL >B <KA;8 C9B8 >B =53>. = B>;L:> CA?5; 70<5B8BL (>A>7=0BL), GB> 452CH:0 1K;0 =5>1KG09=> E>@>H5=L:>9. 2. After verbs of mental activity (to think, to believe, to consider, to expect, to understand, to suppose, to find and some others). Here the infinitive is used in any form, though the non-perfect forms are the most frequent (always with the particle to). I know him to be an honest man. She believed him to have left for San Francisco. I believed her to be knitting in the next room. I should expect my devoted friend to be devoted to me. 3. After verbs of emotion (to like, to love, to hate, to dislike and some others). Here non-perfect, common aspect forms of the to- infinitive are the most usual. I always liked him to sing. She hated her son to be separated from her. Id love you to come with me too. I hated him to have been sent away. 4. After verbs of wish and intention (to want, to wish, to desire, to intend, to mean and some others). After these verbs only non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive with the particle to are used: He only wished you to be near him. I dont want him to be punished. 5. After verbs of declaring (to declare, to pronounce): I declare you to be out of your mind. He reported the boat to have been seen not far away. 6. After verbs of inducement (to have, to make, to get, to order, to tell, to ask, etc.) of which the first two take a bare infinitive. In the construction some of them acquire a different meaning: make - 70AB028BL, get - 4>18BLAO, have - 70AB028BL (A:070BL, GB>1K ...) I can t get him to do it properly. She made me obey her. 7. The objective with the infinitive construction also occurs after certain verbs requiring a prepositional object, for example to count (up)on, to rely (up) on, to look for, to listen to, to wait for: I rely on you to come in time. Cant I count upon you to help me? The gerund 116. The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. The grammatical meaning of the gerund is that of a process. Thus to some extent it competes with nouns of verbal origin, e.g. translating -translation, describing - description, arriving - arrival, perceiving - perception, helping - help. Nouns, however, tend to convey the fact or the result of an action, which in certain circumstances may be something material, whereas gerunds convey the idea of action or process itself. Show me your translation: it is neatly done, and there, are no mistakes in it. You will enrich your vocabulary by translating from English into Russian and vice versa. If the meaning of the gerund is nearly the same as that of the noun, the former emphasizes the process, and the latter - the fact: Thank you for helping me. Thank you for your help. It is natural that the verbal character of the gerund is more prominent in transitive verbs, owing to their combinability and their passive forms. Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and perfect (see table V) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus the gerund may combine: a) with a noun or pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object, depending on the verb it is formed from; b) with an adjective or a noun as a predicative; c) with an infinitive. Gerunds can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as adverbial modifiers. GerundFinite verb I remember your telling me the story five years ago. Its no use arguing about trifles. John dreams of becoming a sailor. There is some chance of his being able to join us. We enjoyed walking slowly along the silent streets.You told me the story five years ago. I never argue about trifles. John became a sailor. We hope he will be able to join us. We walked slowly along the silent streets. The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly in its syntactical function, partly in its combinability. Like a noun, it can function as subject, object, or predicative. Seeing you is always a pleasure. (subject) I remember seeing you somewhere. (object) I am thinking of seeing the film again. (prepositional object) Peters hobby is seeing all new films. (predicative) When it is an attribute or an adverbial modifier, a gerund, like a noun is preceded by a preposition. There is a chance of catching the train. Dont forget to call me up before leaving London. I reached my goal in spite of there being every reason against it. The fact that the gerund can associate with a preposition is a sure sign of noun features. Like a noun, but unlike the other non-finites, it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a noun in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund. Excuse my interrupting you. I insist on Johns staying with us. It combines with the negative pronoun no in the idiomatic construction of the type: There is no getting out of it. The grammatical categories of the gerund 117. As already stated the gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect. Table V The Grammatical Categories of the Gerund  Voice Perfect Active Passive Non-Perfect running taking - being taken Perfect having ran having taken - having been taken The category of perfect 118. The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the contrast of non-perfect (indefinite) and perfect forms. The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb. Students improve their pronunciation John improved his pronunciation You will improve your pronunciation  by listening to tape recordings.  The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to the action denoted by the finite verb. I regret I regretted I will always regret  having uttered these words.  The perfect gerund is invariable in indicating priority, whereas the meaning of the non-perfect gerund is vaguer and more flexible and may easily be modified by the context. Thus according to the context the action denoted by the non-perfect gerund may precede or follow the action denoted by the finite verb. The non-perfect gerund may denote a prior action thanks to the lexical meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting priority, so the non-perfect gerund is generally used after verbs of recollection, gratitude, blame, reproach, punishment and reward. I shall never forget taking this exam. I remember talking to him once. Thank you for helping me. The non-perfect gerund is to be found in gerundial phrases introduced by the prepositions on and after. The preposition on suggests immediate priority and an instantaneous action. On reaching the end of the street we turned towards the river. Tom, after reflecting a little, gave a long sigh. The lexical meaning of the above-mentioned verbs and prepositions makes the use of the perfect form redundant. It is used, however, when the priority is emphasized, as in following examples: And all of a sudden David remembered having heard the name before. He came back after having been away for about ten years. The non-perfect gerund expresses a succeeding action after verbs, adjectives and prepositions implying reference to a future event (such as to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, to look forward to) and after the preposition before: I insist on your staying with us. We are looking forward to visiting new places. Ann suggested going to the cinema. Im not keen on getting myself into trouble. We met once more before parting. The same form occurs after nouns suggesting futurity such as plan, intention, hope, prospect: There is some hope of catching the last train. The category of voice 119. The gerund of transitive verbs possesses voice distinctions. Like other verb forms, the active gerund points out that the action is directed from the subject (whether expressed or implied), whereas the passive gerund indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Active gerundPassive gerund I hate interrupting people. I am not used to talking in that way. On telling me the time, he turned away. He entered without having knocked at the door.- I hate being interrupted. - I am not used to being talked to in that way. - On being told some impossible hour, he turned away. - The door opened without having been knocked on. The perfect passive gerund is very rarely used. There are some verbs (to need, to want, to require, to deserve) and the adjective worth which are followed by an active gerund with passive meaning. Your hair needs cutting. This house wants painting. Your suggestion is worth talking over. Syntactical Functions of the Gerund 120. The gerund can perform any syntactical function typical of a noun, although in each case it has peculiarities of its own. It may function (a) alone, without modifiers, or (b) as the headword of a gerundial phrase, or (c) as part of a gerundial predicative construction. Since the functions of gerundial constructions are identical with those of single gerunds or gerundial phrases, we shall treat them together. The gerundial constructions are usually translated by clauses. a) I like driving. b) I like playing the piano. c) I like Johns (his) playing the piano. A gerundial phrase consists of a gerund as headword and one or more words depending on it. A gerundial construction contains some nominal element denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund and the gerund itself with or without some other words depending on it. The nominal element can be a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun (if it denotes a living being), or a noun in the common case (if it does not denote a living being). I remember Johns telling me that story once. I remember the weather being extremely fine that summer. We are absolutely against grown-up children being treated as babies. There is a growing tendency, especially in informal speech, to use the pronoun in the objective case and a noun in the common case to denote the doer of the action expressed by the gerund with reference to living beings too. They were all in favour of Tommy playing the main part. The gerund as subject 121. As a rule the gerund as subject stands in front position. John(s) coming tomorrow will make all the difference. Growing roses, collecting postage stamps or old swords are hobbies. The subject stands in postposition in sentences opening with an introductory it, which happens when the meaning of the subject is accentuated and the predicate is a phrase such as to be (of) no use (no good, useless), to make all the (no) difference. If you want me to help, its no good beating about the bush. It will make no difference your being quiet. In American English the pattern There is no use in doing it is preferable to It is no use doing it. In sentences with the introductory there the gerund is preceded by the negative pronoun no. Such sentences are usually emphatic. Well, theres no avoiding him now. There is no accounting for his strange behaviour. The gerund as part of the predicate The gerund is used in compound predicates of both types - verbal and nominal. The gerund as part of the compound nominal predicate (predicative) 122. As predicative the gerund expresses either characterization or identity. In the latter case the predicate reveals the meaning of the subject. Johns hobby is collecting all sorts of bugs and butterflies. The gerund as part of the compound verbal predicate 123. In combination with phasal verbs the gerund forms a compound verbal phasal predicate. The finite phasal verb denotes a phase of the action expressed by the gerund. The most common phasal verbs followed by the gerund are: to begin*,* to burst out, to start*, to cease, to continue*, to give up, to go on, to finish, to keep on, to leave off, to stop. * The verbs marked by an asterisk may also be followed by the infinitive. Again you start arguing. On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing. They kept on arguing. Your health will improve as soon as you give up smoking. This is the only function of the gerund that is not characteristic of the noun, for it is caused by the verbal character of the gerund. A gerundial predicative construction cannot form part of a compound verbal predicate. The gerund as object 124. The gerund can be used as a direct or a prepositional object. As a direct object it follows a number of monotransitive verbs, some of which take only the gerund, while others may be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. The gerund is also used after the adjective worth. The following verbs are followed only by the gerund: to admit to appreciate to avoid to deny to detest to enjoy to excuse to fancy to imagine to mention to mind to missto postpone to practise to put off to recollect to resent to resist to risk to suggest to understand cant help cant stand We all appreciate your helping us. Avoid using very long sentences. Fancy us (our) having to walk a mile in a wind like this! Im sorry that I missed seeing you! Do you mind Anns joining us? Practise listening to tape recordings. Its good practice! I find the book worth reading. Verbs followed by either the gerund or the infinitive. to have to forget to intend to like (dislike) to plan to preferto remember to regret cant bear cant afford* * On the difference between the use of the gerund and the infinitive with some verbs see 127. I cant bear your (you) being so sad. We cant afford going to the cinema too often now, we are revising for our exams. I prefer walking home (to taking a bus). After verbs taking an object and an objective predicative the gerund, or rather a gerundial phrase or construction, is preceded by an introductory object it. I find it strange our going without you. I think it no use your (you) arguing about trifles. As a prepositional object the gerund may follow (a) monotransitive prepositional verbs, (b) ditransitive verbs taking a direct and a prepositional object, (c) adjectives and statives and (d) participle II, generally when used as a predicative.  a)to agree to object to look forward  toto count to depend to rely onto hear to learn to think  ofto persist to consist to succeed  in We all agree to your opening the discussion. Happiness consists largely in having true friends. All depends on the doctor being sent for in time. They are thinking of doing something for him.  b)to accuse to suspectofto thank to blame to praise to punish to sentence  forto prevent to stopfromto assist to help in to have no difficulty in to congratulate smb. on Roy accused me of disliking him. What prevented you from becoming a professional actor? Who will help me in hanging these pictures? You should blame yourself for getting such a low mark. I had no difficulty in getting the tickets for the concert. Note: As is seen from above a prepositional for-object has a shade of causal meaning.  c)to be afraid to be aware to be conscious to be capable to be fond of to be ignorant to be proud to be sure ofto be responsible for to be sorry about to be keen on I dont have the TV too loud, because Im afraid of disturbing the neighbours. We are all proud of our citizens getting the first prize. Ned will be responsible for arranging the farewell party. Dont be sorry about missing the first scene, it was rather dull. d)to be accustomed to be usedtoto be (dis)pleased with (at) to be surprised at to be tired ofto be absorbed to be engrossedin Im not used to being talked to in that rude way. The teacher was displeased with the boys being noisy. We were surprised at your leaving the party. A teacher shouldnt get tired of explaining things to his pupils. The gerund as attribute 125. When used as an attribute, the gerund modifies nouns, mainly abstract nouns. It is always preceded by a preposition, in the vast majority of cases by of, as in the following combinations: the art of teaching, the habit of speaking, a certain way of walking, a chance of seeing somebody, a hope of getting a ticket, an idea of going to the cinema, an intention of learning another foreign language, etc. There is a chance of catching the train. Professor N spoke about new methods of teaching English to foreign students. The idea of him being in Paris was not a pleasant one. Lucy had the impression of being carried upstairs. Isnt there any hope of your being able to go with us at all? In some cases the choice of the preposition depends on the requirements of the modified noun, as in surprise at, experience in, skill in, apology (excuse) for, objection to. The boy showed his skill in building model boats. Imagine his surprise at seeing me. When a gerund modifies a concrete noun it is preceded by the preposition for and the whole gerundial phrase as attribute expresses the purpose or destination of the thing mentioned. The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure of the air. A gerund as attribute may precede the noun it modifies in phrases bordering on a compound noun. A premodifying attribute is used without a preposition, as in a dancing master, a diving suit, a reading lamp, a spending habit, a working method, a writing career, a swimming pool, a walking stick, etc.* * See 132. The gerund as adverbial modifier 126. Owing to the variety of prepositions which may precede the gerund in the function of an adverbial modifier, a gerund may have different meanings. 1) As an adverbial modifier of time it may characterize the main verb from the viewpoint of priority, simultaneity, or posteriority. It may also indicate the starting point of the action. The prepositions used are on, after, in, before, since. One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room. At first he couldnt understand. After thinking it over he hit upon the explanation. And Ill wash the dishes and clean up before coming to bed. I had had a lot of thoughts since leaving the office. 2) As an adverbial modifier of reason it is introduced by the prepositions because of, for, from, for fear of, on account of, through. So you see I couldnt sleep for worrying. We lost ourselves through not knowing the way. He (Jolyon) took care not to face the future for fear of breaking up his untroubled manner. 3) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund generally occurs with the prepositions by or without. You will achieve a lot by felling the truth. She dressed without making a sound. 4) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances it requires the preposition without. They danced without speaking. (= They danced and didnt speak) The door opened without having been knocked on. 5) As an adverbial modifier of concession it is preceded by the preposition in spite of: I dont ask any questions in spite of there being a lot of questions to ask. 6) As an adverbial modifier of condition it takes the prepositions without, but for, in case of. You wont enrich your vocabulary without making use of an English dictionary. (= if you dont make use of...) But for meeting John, I shouldnt have become an English teacher. 7) As an adverbial modifier of purpose it is introduced by the preposition for, though this pattern is rather rare. They took her to the station for questioning. The gerund and the infinitive compared 127. The gerund and the infinitive have much in common since they both have some nominal and some verbal features. However, in the infinitive the verbal nature is more prominent, whereas in the gerund the nominal one. The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more general, whereas the infinitive is more specific and more bound to some particular occasion. When they combine with the same verb the difference in their meaning and use should be fully realized. 1. With the verbs to like, to hate, to prefer the gerund expresses a more general or a habitual action, the infinitive a specific single action: I like swimming (I am fond of swimming). I hate interrupting people. They prefer staying indoors when the weather is cold.I shouldnt like to swim in this lake. I hate to interrupt you, but I have to. Id prefer to stay at home in this cold weather. 2. With the verbs to begin and to start either form may generally be used, but again the gerund is preferable when the action is more general. She began singing when a child.She went over to the piano and began to sing. No gerund is used: a) when the finite verb is in the continuous form. He is beginning to study French. Its beginning to rain. b) with the verbs to understand and to see (meaning to understand). He began to understand how it was done. c) when the subject denotes a thing, not a living being. The doors began to creak. The clock began to strike. 3. The verb to remember is followed by a gerund when it means a prior action (to recall, to keep in one s memory some past event), and by an infinitive when it means a simultaneous action (the working of one s memory). I remembered posting the letters. (/ ?><=8;, GB> >?CAB8; ?8AL<>).I remembered to post the letters. = I remembered and posted. (/ =5 701K; >?CAB8BL ?8AL<>). The same refers to the verb to forget. I shall never forget hearing him sing (/ =8:>340 =5 701C4C :0: >= ?5;).Don t forget to post the letters! (5 701C4L >?CAB8BL ?8AL<0). I didn t forget to post the letters. (/ =5 701K; >?CAB8BL ?8AL<0). 4. The verb to regret is followed by the gerund to suggest priority, whereas the infinitive suggests a simultaneous action. I regret not having worked harder at the language as a boy. (/ A>60;5N, GB> =5 CG8; :0: A;54C5B O7K:0 2 45BAB25). I regret following his advice. (/ A>60;5N, GB> ?>A;54>20; 53> A>25BC). I regret to inform you. (! A>60;5=85< A>>1I0N 20< MB>). I regret to have to inform you. (!>60;5N, GB> 2K=C645= A>>1I8BL 20< MB>). 5. a) after to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action denoted by the gerund, whereas the infinitive is used as an adverbial of purpose. Stop arguing! (5@5AB0=L A?>@8BL!) I stopped talking. (/ 70<>;G0;).I stopped to talk to a friend of mine (/ >AB0=>28;0AL, GB>1K ?>3>2>@8BL A 4@C3><).  b) The phrasal verb to go on with a gerund suggests the continuation of the action, denoted by the gerund and forms part of a compound verbal predicate; an infinitive points out a new stage in the sequence of actions. The teacher went on explaining the use of verbals (continued). (... ?@>4>;60; >1JOA=OBL ...)The teacher went on to explain he use of the gerund after some verbs. (... >1JOA=O; >4=> ?@028;> 70 4@C38< .... B. 5. C?>B@51;5=85 35@C=48O ?>A;5 @07=KE 3;03>;>2). 6. The verb to allow is used with a gerund when it is not followed by an indirect object. They don t allow smoking here. (45AL :C@8BL 70?@5I5=>).They allowed us to smoke. (=8 @07@5H8;8 =0< :C@8BL). The gerund and the verbal noun compared 128. Although formed in the same way as the gerund, the verbal noun is another part of speech and has no verbal features at all. The following table shows the main differences between the gerund and the verbal noun. Table VI The characteristics of the gerund and the verbal noun Forms Grammatical characteristics The gerund The verbal noun M o rVoice and perfect being done, having done - f o l o g yThe plural form -sufferings, comings and goings S y n t a xDirect objectI like doing morning exercises.-Of-phrase and adjectival attributes - The doing of morning Exercises was very good for me. The regular doing of morning exercises Adverbs as a modifier Doing morning exercises regularly will improve your health. - Articles - The doing of morning exercises. The acting was perfect. From the table we can see that the distinctive features of the gerund are its verbal categories in the sphere of morphology and its verbal combinability. The distinctive features of the verbal noun are its nominal category of number and its noun combinability. It must be taken into consideration that a verbal noun is an abstract noun, and the use of the article and the plural form is determined by the requirements of the meaning and context. It is more difficult to discriminate between a gerund and a verbal noun in cases where the verbal characteristics of the gerund are not apparent. This happens mainly when an -ing form is used as a single word without any modifiers or with such modifiers as occur with both the gerund and the verbal noun (His coming was unexpected. Her acting was perfect). In such cases the meaning of the form should be taken into account. Thus a gerund suggests a process, an activity, whereas a verbal noun denotes kinds of occupation (skating as compared to hockey), an art form (acting, painting), a branch of knowledge (engineering, spelling as opposed to pronunciation and as a synonym for orthography). It goes without saying that an -ing form is a pure noun when it denotes an object, often the result of activity (a building - a house; a drawing, a painting - a picture). In such cases a noun unlike a gerund, may also combine with numerals, as in two drawings, four buildings, etc. The participle The participle is a non-finite form of the verb. There are two forms of the participle - participle I and participle II. Participle I 129. Participle I is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb.* * For rules of spelling and pronunciation see 7. 138 The verbal character of participle I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perfect (see table VII) and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other non-finites, it may combine: a) with a noun or a pronoun as direct, indirect or prepositional object; b) with an adverb or a prepositional phrase as an adverbial modifier; c) with a noun or adjective as a predicative. a) Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. We didnt utter a word while listening to the story. b) Rising early, youll make your days longer. Do you know the man sitting in the middle of the first row? c) Being absent-minded, he went into the wrong room. Participle I is used as a pure verb form in the formation of the continuous aspect forms. The adjectival and adverbial features of participle I are manitested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modifier. Arriving at the station, she saw him at once, leaning agains the railing. (adverbial modifier of time, detached attribute). Non-perfect participle I active has synonymous adjectives formed from the same verb stem, such as resulting - resultant, convulsing - convulsive, abounding - abundant, deceiving - deceptive. Some participles border on adjectives when used as attributes or predicatives, and have qualitative adjectives as synonyms; for example amusing - funny, boring - dull, deafening - (very) loud. There are even some deverbal adjectives that have completely lost their verbal meaning, for example interesting, charming. When they lose their verbal character, participles may be modified by adverbs of degree used with adjectives, such as very, so, too, as in very (greatly, exceedingly, etc.) amusing, too boring, most exciting. My job is with one of the ministers - too boring and distasteful to discuss. All this was extremely gratifying. Like an adjective, participle I forms adverbs with the suffix -ly: laughingly, jokingly, surprisingly, admiringly, appealingly, feelingly. You surprise me, she said feelingly. The grammatical categories of participle I Table VII  The category of perfect The category of perfect in participle I finds its expression in the contrast of the non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb. Thus the time-reference of the action expressed by participle I can be understood only from the context, that is it is not absolute, but relative.  Learning foreign languagesyou know your native tongue better. I used to begin my day with repeating new words. you will learn a lot about your native tongue. The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to that denoted by the finite verb.  Having learnt the elements of EnglishI shall start upon French. our students start upon French or German. we started upon French. The meaning of priority may be accompanied by the notion of completion or duration, depending on whether the meaning of the verb is terminative or durative. Dinny took the little packet, and having brought no bag, slipped it down her dress. Having waited several hours in the snow to see me, he was not likely to show much patience when the house was thrown into darkness. Like that of the other non-finites, the perfect form of participle I invariably expresses priority, whereas non-perfect participle I varies in its meaning according to the context, expressing either a prior or a simultaneous or a posterior action. Non-perfect participle I regularly expresses immediate priority and denotes an instantaneous action if it is formed from terminative verbs, such as verbs of motion (to come, to enter, to arrive, to turn, to leave), of sense perception (to see, to hear, to find) and verbs of certain specific actions associated with motion (to put, to put on, to take, to take off, to seize, to grasp, to open). Arriving at the station, he found his train gone. Leaving the house, Andrew continued his round. Turning the comer, youll see the house you are looking for. Hearing a noise in the garden, I looked out of the window. Taking off our shoes, we tiptoed into the nursery. The perfect participle of the same verbs is used when there is a lapse of time between the two actions, or when the action denoted by the participle is durative. Compare the following examples: Seeing Jane, I rushed to greet her. But: Having seen tine girl only once, I didnt recognize her. Not having seen her for a long time, I didnt recognize her. Sometimes the perfect participle is used to emphasize priority. Compare these examples: Her husband, finding the right key, fits it into the lock of the bureau. Having found the place he sought, Bateman sent in his card to the manager. Non-perfect participle I may denote a posterior action, immediately following the first action, forming its part or being its result, as in: Lizzy left the room, banging the door shut. John fell, hurting his knee. There may be a lapse of time between the first and the second (posterior) action. This is evident from the context. I then hired a car and went home, arriving just before twelve >'clock. We left at dawn, returning late. As seen from the above examples non-perfect participle I denoting a prior action usually precedes the predicate verb. When it denotes a posterior action, it stands always after the predicate verb. In both cases it corresponds to the Russian perfective adverbial participle (455?@8G0AB85) (?@85E02, ?>25@=C2, CA;KH02, A=O2, ?>4=O2H8AL, =094O, E;>?=C2, 25@=C2H8AL). The category of voice 130. Participle I of transitive verbs, both non-perfect and perfect, has voice distinctions, which are realized in the contrast of active and passive forms: Translating from English into Russian, she should know well both languages. Having translated the text into Russian, we handed it to the teacher.Being translated into many languages, the novel is known all over the world. Having been translated long ago, the novel is likely to be re-translated.  Participle I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I passive denotes an action directed towards it. The carrier of the action may coincide with the subject of the sentence, as in the above examples. It may also be a noun modified by participle I used attributively, in whatever function the noun is used: Do you know the students translating the text? Have you read the text being translated by the students? The doer of the action may be expressed by the nominal element of a predicative construction: I heard someone mentioning your name. I heard your name being mentioned at the conference. Non-perfect participle I active of transitive verbs can be contrasted not only with participle I passive, but also with participle II: taking mentioning teaching holding- being taken - being mentioned - being taught - being held - taken - mentioned - taught - held  According to the syntactical function of participle I and the aspectual character of the verb, non-perfect participle I passive may denote process, as in: Have you heard anything of the conference being held at the University? (of the conference which is being held at the University) The phrase The conference held at the University is ambiguous, because it might be understood as The conference that has been held or -was held or is being held. Syntactical functions of participle I 131. Participle I performs the syntactical functions characteristic of the adjective and the adverb, and can therefore be used as attribute, predicative, or as adverbial modifier. It may be used (a) alone or (b) as headword of a participial phrase, or else (c) as part of a predicative construction: a) Let sleeping dogs lie. He drank his coffee standing. b) There are some other people waiting for you. The youth looked at him curiously, never having seen a Forsyte with a beard. c) We found him working in the garden. Participle I as attribute 132. This function is peculiar to non-perfect participle I in its main sense, that of a process simultaneous with the action denoted by the main verb or with the moment of speech. It corresponds to the Russian imperfective participle, usually active: leading - 254CI89, asking - A?@0H820NI89, sleeping - A?OI89. The passive participle I corresponds to the Russian imperfective passive participle: being asked - A?@0H8205<K9, being translated -?5@52>48<K9, being built - AB@>OI89AO. When a participial phrase is used as attribute it follows the modified noun. Its verbal character is evident from its verbal combinability and sometimes from the passive form itself. A participial phrase may be (a) non-detached or (b) detached: a) We went along the street leading to the seashore. Emma sat in the armchair facing the door. Another factor concerns the formality of the language being taught. b) Once a month Tommy, arriving separately, came in for a brief drink. A detached participial phrase is set off from the modified noun by a comma (or commas) in writing and by a pause (or pauses) in speech. When a single participle is used as attribute, it generally functions as a premodifier. Here we usually find only participle I active of intransitive verbs. Its verbal character is clear from the processual meaning of the verb itself: living people, a sleeping dog. Participle I as a premodifying attribute differs from the gerund in the same function. The noun serves as the subject of the action expressed by the participle, as in a living man = a man who lives, a burning house = a house that is burning, a dancing girl == a girl who is dancing (or dances). The gerund suggests the destination of the object or a persons occupation, as in writing paper =paper for writing, dancing hall = a hall for dancing, a singing teacher = a teacher of singing. Note also the difference in stress patterns. There are two stresses in the pattern with the participle (a 'burning 'house), the second being the main stress, while in the pattern with the gerund only the first (gerundial) element is stressed (a ' dancing hall); if there are two stresses, the first component has the main stress, as in a 'speaking 'habit, a 'writing 'career. When a prior action is meant no participle I can be used as attribute, only an attributive clause is used. Thus when we translate sentences with the Russian perfective participle active with the suffix-2H into English we must use an attributive clause: A?@>A82H89 - who has asked, ?5@52>482H89 (@0=55) - who has translated or who has (had) been translating, C5E02H89 -who has gone, 25@=C2H89AO - who has (had) returned or who returned, depending on the context or situation: / @073>20@820; A> ABC45=B0<8, 25@=C2H8<8AO A ?@0:B8:8.  I ve just talked to the students who have come back from their teaching practice. / @073>20@820; A> ABC45=B0<8, 25@=C2H8<8AO A ?@0:B8:8 =0 ?@>H;>9 =545;5.  I ve talked to the students who came back from their school practice last week. . 5=I8=0, AB>O2H0O =0 :@K;LF5, 2>H;0 2 4><. - The woman who had been standing on the porch went into the house, (the action expressed by the participle is prior to that of the finite verb) But: / >1@0B8;AO : 65=I8=5, AB>O2H59 =0 :@K;LF5. - I addressed the woman standing on the porch (simultaneous actions). Participle I as adverbial modifier 133. All the four forms of participle I can function as adverbial modifiers of different semantic types (time, reason, manner, attendant circumstances, and sometimes condition, concession, comparison). The semantic type of the adverbial modifier is clear from the context and the predicate group, as in: Being a newcomer, he felt ill at case. (adverbial modifier of reason) In some cases, however, the functional meaning is not so obvious. For example, there may be a combination of causal and temporal meaning as in: Seeing her, he stopped (he stopped because he saw her, or when he saw her). or of causal and conditional meaning: Living alone, one becomes self-centred (as one lives alone, or if one lives alone). Very often to make the semantical relationship clearer, certain conjunctions are employed, such as: when, while, though, as if, as though, if. 1) Participle I as adverbial modifier of time may denote a simultaneous or a prior action. Here it corresponds to the Russian adverbial participle (455?@8G0AB85). Non-perfect participle I active, when used as an adverbial modifier of time, usually conveys the meaning of the motion or state. Most often it is a participle of the verbs of motion (come, walk, go), or position in space (sit, lie, stand). Walking along the track, Bowen burst into song. Returning to London, Arthur had thrown himself into the work. Standing there now on the corner of the stage, he went on as before. Lying in the hospital with his rotting wound, he dictated his farewell letter to his brother. The notion of simultaneity may be expressed more explicitly by the conjunctions when and while. He felt horrible while saying this. Dont forget articles when speaking English. Participle I passive in this function usually denotes priority. He enquired hurriedly whether Mrs. Forsyte was at home and being informed that she was not, heaved a sigh of relief. Being left alone, Paulina and I kept silence for some time. Perfect participle I as adverbial modifier of time, always denotes a prior action. They wrote because they had to, and having written, thought only of what they were going to write next. 2) Participle I as adverbial modifier of reason can be expressed by all the four forms. The most frequently used non-perfect participles I are those of verbs denoting mental perception and emotions, for example, knowing, realizing, remembering, expecting, hoping, fearing; also the participles being and having. Hoping to catch the train, we took a taxi. She knew that we were guilty. And knowing it, the child in her was outraged. Being there, I could see all. Hes very conceited, you know, having parades and things all the time. Having decided on this course of action some time ago, I was unable to stay at home. Another characteristic feature of participles functioning as adverbials of reason consists in their combinability with negation (no matter what it is expressed by). I turned back, not knowing where to go. Even then he hadnt been able to watch her, not having eyes in the back of his head. 3) The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances is one of the most characteristic of participle I - it is considered to be the main grammatical meaning of non-perfect participle I. In this case participle I denotes some action or event parallel to the action or state denoted by the finite verb. Deb was silent, fidgeting with the spoon in her saucer. I laughed, and still laughing turned away eastward. 4) Participle I as an adverbial modifier of manner is akin to an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. The difference consists in the fact that an adverbial modifier of manner characterizes the action of the finite verb, whereas that of attendant circumstances denotes a parallel action or event. He came in carrying a big parcel. 5) Occasionally participle I occurs as an adverbial modifier of comparison, concession or condition. As an adverbial of comparison the participle is always preceded by the conjunction as if, as though: As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face. When participle I is used as an adverbial modifier of concession the conjunction is not obligatory and then the idea of concession may be understood from the context. However the conjunction though will make the semantic relationship clearer. Somebody was waiting: a man who, though moving irregularly, was making quite a speed in my direction. In the same way participle I as an adverbial modifier of condition is recognized by its syntactical surroundings. It is either the subjunctive mood or the future tense form which allows a participial phrase to function as an adverbial modifier of condition: She ought to be there and her absence might be resented, but being there she wouldnt know what to say (=>, 5A;8 1K >=0 1K;0 B0< ... , ... => 1C4CG8 B0< ...). Well, we ll be in Scotland afore we know where we are, going at this speed (... 5A;8 1C45< 42830BLAO A B0:>9 A:>@>ABLN). Participle I as part of the compound verbal predicate 134. Non-perfect participle I can be part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation. Within this type of predicate participle I follows verbs of sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, to catch, also some causative verbs, such as to keep, to leave in the passive voice. Jane was heard playing the piano. Paul was found working in the garden. The boy was caught teasing the cat. I was kept waiting an hour or so. I was left standing on the stage. In this type of predicate participle I active is generally used, though occasionally non-perfect participle I passive is to be found. He flicks the switch and Roll Out the Barrel is heard being whistled. The predicate of double orientation consists of two parts: the first is oriented on somebody implied, and the second refers semantically to the doer of the action expressed by the subject. Thus the first example means that somebody heard that Jane was playing the piano.* Therefore sentences with this type of predicate are translated into Russian by indefinite personal or impersonal sentences, complex or simple, depending on the verb in the passive voice. * See p. II Syntax, 53 The compound verbal predicate of double orientation; also 123 Predicative complexes (the subjective predicative construction). !;KH0;8 (A;KH=> 1K;>), :0: 659= 83@05B =0 @>O;5. 5=O 70AB028;8 640BL ?>GB8 F5;K9 G0A. Participle I as predicative 135. In the position of predicative only non-perfect participle I active occurs, its adjectival character being predominant. Although keeping the form of the participle, it is treated as an adjective, or a deverbal adjective. The participle in this position gives the qualitative characterization to the person or thing used as subject (or object, in the case of the objective predicative). The story is amusing. Your answer is surprising. We found him dying- I find the story amusing. - I consider your answer surprising. - We found that he was dying. Participle I as predicative may be used with other linkverbs, in which case it may keep its verbal character, as in: Isadora remained standing. Participle I as independent element (parenthesis) 136. Participle I as parenthesis forms the headword of a participial phrase, the meaning of which is a comment upon the contents of the whole sentence or sometimes part of it. The comment may take the form of a logical restriction or personal attitude. Here we find such participial phrases as generally (properly, roughly, legally, strictly) speaking, putting it mildly, judging by (from), allowing for, taking everything into consideration, etc. Judging from what you say, he ought to succeed. Strictly speaking, this is illegal. Predicative constructions with participle I 137. Participle I may function as part of a predicative construction, entering into a predicative relationship with some nominal element and forming a syntactical unit with it. The objective participial construction The objective participial construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and participle I forming a syntactical complex, the two main components of which are in predicative relationship. Since the construction always follows transitive verbs, its syntactical function is that of a complex object.* Thus in its meaning it corresponds to a subordinate clause and is usually translated into Russian by a subordinate object clause: * For details see p. II Syntax. The Predicative Constructions (The Complex Object). I saw John playing tennis I saw him playing tennis We heard them singing- / 2845;, :0: 6>= 83@05B 2 B5==8A. - / 2845;, :0: >= 83@05B 2 B5==8A. - K A;KH0;8, :0: >=8 ?>NB. In many cases, however, the translation depends on the verb it reters to and on the requirements of the Russian usage. The nominal element usually refers to a person or a thing different from that denoted by the subject of the sentence. If it refers to the same person as the subject, a reflexive pronoun is to be used, as in: He heard himself uttering the words. The construction is generally used with non-perfect participle I active, and occasionally it occurs with participle I passive: I could see the books being taken away. Some of the verbs followed by the objective participial construction occur also with the objective infinitive construction (such as to see, to watch, to hear, to feel). The difference between these two constructions concerns the meaning suggested by an infinitive or participle I; the former emphasizes the fact of an action being completed, the latter its processual character, as in: I saw the car stop at the gate. I saw the car stopping.- / 2845;, GB> <0H8=0, >AB0=>28;0AL C 2>@>B. - / 2845;, :0: <0H8=0 >AB0=>28;0AL (>AB0=02;820;0AL) C 2>@>B. If the homogeneous infinitives are used, they denote two actions in succession. If two participles I are homogeneous, they suggest two simultaneous actions. I heard him leave the room and lock the door. Soames saw Bosinney watching her and smiling to himself.- / A;KH0;, :0: >= 2KH5; 87 :><=0BK 8 70?5@ 55. - !><5 C2845;, GB> >A8==8 =01;N40; 70 =59 8 C;K10;AO A0< A515. The objective participial construction is used: a) with verbs of sense perception, b)with various verbs of causative meaning, or inducement. c) occasionally with verbs expressing wish. a)to see to hear to feel to watchto notice to observe to perceive to smellto find to catch to discover to look (at)to listen (to) We saw (watched, heard, listened to) the train approaching the station. Do you smell something burning? I could feel the dog leaning against my feet. We found him working in the garden. b)to have to get to keepto leave to start to set I wont have you smoking at your age! They soon got (started) things going. Dont keep me waiting. Im in a hurry. Your words set me thinking. Can you start (set) that engine going? Note: The verbs to have, to get may be used in the construction without their causative meaning, as in: I have some students waiting for me. Ive got my grandson staying for a week.  Sentences with the verbs of this group are usually translated into Russian by simple sentences. c) to want, to like I dont want you talking back to me. They didnt like me leaving so early. 138. The nominative absolute participial construction. This construction consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal element is participle I in any of its forms. The nominal and the verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adverbial modifier. Unlike the objective participial construction it does not depend on a verb: John having left the room to ring for a taxi as arranged, Mary sat down again to wait for him. The difference between a participial phrase and a nominative absolute participial construction may be illustrated as follows: Having read the novel Jane (she) put it aside.  The novel having been read, Jane (she) put it aside.  In a participial phrase the subject of the sentence is as a rule related both to the predicate verb and to the participle. In a sentence with a nominative absolute participial construction the subject of the sentence is related only to the predicate verb, and the nominal element is related to the participle. The nominative absolute participial construction functions syntactically as an adverbial modifier: an adverbial modifier of a) attendant circumstances, b) reason, c) occasionally time. a) Llewellyn looked through the window, his glance travelling towards the bridge. Mabel hurried out of the car and walked away, tears streaming down her face. We were both standing leaning against the mantelpiece, she admirng her fan of blotting paper, I staring at her. A nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of attendant circumstances usually stands in postposition, and is widely used in literature. It is translated into Russian by a coordinate clause: K >10 AB>O;8 C :0<8=0; >=0 ;N1>20;0AL 255@>< 87 ?@><>:0B5;L=>9 1C<038, 0 O 3;O45; =0 =55. b) But I was a little on edge, there being something to report. The ship s band did not play in the morning, it being Sunday. c) The work being finished, the two girls went into the shop. Sentences with a nominative absolute participial construction as an adverbial of reason or time are translated by complex sentences with the corresponding subordinate clauses: / =5@2=8G0;, B0: :0: 1K;> > G5< A>>1I8BL... >340 @01>B0 1K;0 70:>=G5=0, 452CH:8 2>H;8 2 <0AB5@A:CN. As well as in sentences with participial phrases causal and temporal meanings may be combined, as in: Ice having thus been broken, the two former rivals grew still more affectionate. Prepositional absolute participial construction with participle I A prepositional absolute construction differs from a non-prepositional participial construction in that it is introduced by the preposition with. Its nominal part is usually a noun in the common case, or very rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case. It is not necessarily set off by a comma: Andrew went into the house with his heart beating fast. The main syntactical function of the construction is an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances, as in: The officer sat with his long fine hands lying on the table perfectly still. The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with temporal or causal ones: I wont speak with him staring at me like that. Just now, with the harvest coming on, everything looks its richest. It (St. Johns Wood) is ever so pretty with all the trees coming out. The construction is usually translated into Russian by a coordinate or a subordinate clause, and sometimes by means of a prepositional phrase, or an adverbial participle (455?@8G0AB85). (>340) -=4@N 2>H5; 2 4><, A5@4F5 53> A8;L=> 18;>AL (A 1LNI8<AO A5@4F5<). "5?5@L, :>340 ?@81;8605BAO 2@5<O 60B2K, 2A5 B0: :@0A82>. Participle I and the gerund compared 139. Participle I and the gerund are alike in their verbal characteristics, both morphological (the categories of voice and perfect) and syntactical (verbal combinability). The difference between the two lies in their non-verbal characteristics, that is in their syntactical functions and non-verbal combinability. Participle I, unless substantivized, cannot be used as subject or object, whereas such use is typical of the noun and therefore of the gerund. When used as adverbial modifier or attribute, participle I like an adjective or an adverb is never preceded by a preposition. On the other hand when the gerund is used as attribute or adverbial modifier it is preceded by a preposition like a noun in these functions. The difference between the two is also to be found in the nominal tendencies of the gerund and the adjectival tendencies of participle I. This is most evident in their function of a predicative and an attribute. As predicative participle I gives qualitative characteristics to the subject, thus tending towards an adjective, as in: The sound of the thunder was deafening. The gerund does not qualify the subject, it rather identifies the subject by revealing its meaning, as in: His favourite occupation is collecting stamps (or playing football or just football). When a gerund or a participle is used as an attribute, the difference between them does not lie only in the absence, or presence of the preposition, but also in their relationship to the modified noun. (For details see 132 on premodifying attributes). Participle I denotes an action that the person or thing performs or experiences: What is the name of the man talking with your sister? Thus the modified noun denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle. The gerund usually reveals the meaning of the modified noun, which never denotes the performer of the action. What the use of crying so? That was my last chance of seeing him. There was no hope of saving her. When used as an adverbial modifier, the gerund is more varied in its application than the participle because it is used with different prepositions. The participle and the gerund are interchangeable when used as adverbials of time characterizing the verb through simultaneous or prior events:  Discussing the plan In discussing the plan we heard a lot of helpfull suggestions.Entering the room On entering the room he closed the door.After discussing the plan Having discussed the plan we started carring it out. Only the gerund is possible when the starting or the final point of the action is meant, as in: He has never been at his native town since leaving it in 1964. You must get your parents permission before leaving for the mountains. Yet there are a number of cases, especially among predicative constructions, where the -ing form may be treated either as a participle or a gerund, the difference between them being neutralized, as in: I dont count on him scaring easily. Then he was aware of Toscato shaking the door of the box. I remember them staying with us once. Fancy him saying so! Participle II 140. Participle II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their morphological categories. Nevertheless, being a verb form, it possesses the potential verbal meaning of voice, aspect and correlation, which depend upon the meaning of the verb it is formed from and which are realized in the context. The main meanings of participle II are those of a state as a result of some action or an action itself. One of the most essential characteristics of participle II is that when it is used as part of the sentence, participle II of a transitive verb is passive in meaning, participle II of an intransitive verb is active. Thus the participles invited, told, taken are semantically passive and correspond to the Russian passive participles ?@83;0H5==K9, @0AA:070==K9, 27OBK9. The participles arrived, gone, risen are semantically active and correspond to the Russian active participles ?@81K2H89, CH54H89, ?>4=O2H89AO (27>H54H89). 141. The adjectival nature of participle II manifests itself in its function in the sentence, which is usually that of either attribute or predicative. It may combine with adverbs of degree typical of adjectives, such as very, too, slightly, so, much, more, as in: I am very pleased with you. The children were too excited to notice the newcomer. No man has ever had a more devoted sister than I. Instead of the negation not, which we find with the other non-finites, participle II is often negated with the prefix un-, as in unfinished, unanswered. Participle II may turn into adjectives with qualitative meaning synonymous with other adjectives, as in celebrated - famous, tired - weary. Similar to adjectives and participle I, participle II may form adverbs with the help of the suffix -ly: fixedly, unhurriedly, admittedly. The adjectival nature of participle II is traced in adjectivized participles with a form different from the verbal participle II. These forms occur as attributes in such phrases as on bended knees, a drunken man, a lighted match (candle, torch), molten lava (lead, steel), roast meat, a rotten apple, a shaven head, a well-shaven man, sodden clothes, sunken eyes, a swollen river. Some forms are used predicatively: to be well-stricken in years, to be panic-stricken, poverty-stricken (but thunder-struck, theatre-struck). 142. The verbal character of participle II is manifested in its combinability. Thus participle II of transitive verbs easily combines with a by-object denoting the doer of the action as in Jane entered the room followed by her brother. Participles II of phrasal verbs retain their composite structure: a boy brought up in a teachers family. Participles II of prepositional transitive verbs are followed by the appropriate prepositions: a book often asked for, the article referred to, a man much spoken of. Ditransitive verbs keep their second object as in: That was the main question asked her at the wedding. Participle II may be accompanied by an adverbial modifier expressed by adverbs or phrases combining with verbs: a house built two years before, man hidden in the bush, a play well acted, a story long forgotten. One of the main verbal features of participle II is revealed in its functioning as part of the compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect. Voice peculiarities of participle II 143. Participle II of transitive verbs, when it is not part of a perfect form, is always passive in meaning. Depending on the verb and the context it may correspond to any passive participle in Russian: built -?>AB@>5==K9, AB@>82H89AO, AB@>OI89AO; begun - =0G0BK9, =0G8=05<K9, =0G8=0NI89AO; translated - ?5@52>4OI89AO, ?5@52>482H89AO, ?5@52>48<K9, ?5@52545==K9. Having a passive meaning participle II of transitive verbs is opposed to participle I active: asking - asked, loving - loved, seeing - seen, writing -written, teaching - taught, watching - watched, etc. The doer of the action or state denoted by participle II is to be found in the subject or object of the sentence, in the noun or pronoun modified by participle II, in the first (nominal) element of a predicative construction. The passive meaning of participle II may be of three types: 1) denoting an action directed towards the person or non-person expressed by the subject or object. This is peculiar to durative (non-terminative) transitive verbs, such as to accompany, to follow, to watch, to carry, to teach, to listen (to), to laugh (at), to look (at, for, on), to speak (of, to), to love, to hate, as in: Spanish is one of the foreign languages taught at our Institute. I wont have my friend laughed at. 2) denoting a state, which is the result of an action. This is typical of terminative transitive verbs, such as to bring, to catch, to do, to find, to make, to put, to solve, to build, to realise, to open, to close, etc. The problem is solved. The door is shut. Occasionally, in a certain context, participle II of the above-mentioned verbs may denote action, as in: Brightmans place was an old English farm-house, built two years before. 3) denoting a pure state. This is the case with verbs denoting psycological states and emotions, such as to amuse, to annoy, to offend, to surprise, to please, to excite. I felt annoyed when he refused to help me. Im very (much) pleased with what he has done. Participle II of intransitive verbs is always active in meaning. The use of these participles is restricted. Only participles II of verbs denoting motion or change of state can be used as attributes. These are participles II of the verbs to arrive, to fall, to go, to rise, to depart, to decease, to retire, to fade, to wither, to vanish, to decay and some others. Participles II of these verbs correspond to the Russian active participle of the perfective aspect: arrived - ?@81K2H89, vanished - 8AG57=C2H89, faded - C2O4H89, decayed - A3=82H89, as in arrived guests, the risen moon, the vanisned civilisation, the fallen leaves, the retired president. Among these participles we find some which can be used either transitively or intransitively, such as hidden, increased, diminished, returned. They correspond to the Russian perfective active participles with the suffix -AO (A?@OB02H89AO, C25;8G82H89AO, 25@=C2H89AO): the man hidden behind the tree, an increased population, a returned traveller. The aspectual meaning of participle II and perfect 144. The original aspectual meaning of participle II is perfectivity. It is evident in terminative verbs and verbs of double aspectual meaning. In transitive terminative verbs the passive meaning of participle II is combined with perfectivity. Thus participle II can be opposed to participle I in their aspectual meanings of perfectivity/imperfectivity: taking - taken, asking - asked, writing - written, telling - told (15@CI89 - 27OBK9, A?@0H820NI89 - A?@>H5==K9, etc.). The original meaning may be modified by the context, as can be seen by comparing the following sentences: The story told by the hostess amused everybody (8AB>@8O, @0AA:070==0O E>7O9:>9...). Why don t we believe stories told by hunters and fishermen? (8AB>@88, @0AA:07K205<K5 >E>B=8:0<8, B. 5. :>B>@K5 @0AA:07K20NB >E>B=8:8) There is a growing tendency in present-day English to use participle I passive as an attribute to emphasize the processual character of the action. Thus we may paraphrase the last sentence, saying, Why don't we believe stories being told by hunters? Participle II of intransitive verbs or verbs used intransitively is always perfective in meaning and can be opposed to non-perfect participle I: rising - risen, decaying - decayed, going - gone, arriving - arrived, retiring -retired, as in: the rising moon - the risen moon, the retiring director the retired director. The same in the auctioneers formula: Going! Going! Gone! (@>405BAO! @>405BAO! @>40=>!) The meaning of perfectivity/imperfectivity results in the potential meaning of perfect. The idea of priority and simultaneity is suggested by the aspectual character of the verb and is realized in the given context. In many cases, however, the ideas of priority and simultaneity become fused, since the action is prior to, and the resulting state is simultaneous with, the action of the finite verb or the moment of speech. Thus in the sentence First of all she went to the bombed building the action of bombing is prior to the action of the finite verb went, but the resulting state of the action is simultaneous with it. Syntactical functions of participle II 145. As part of the sentence participle II may stand alone or be the headword of a participial phrase. It may function as an attribute (close or detached), predicative, or as an adverbial modifier. Participle II as attribute 146. Participle II usually functions either as premodifier when it stands alone or forms a very short participial phrase containing an adverb. The verbal character of the participle in the first case is made clear only by its lexical meaning: First of all she went to the bombed building. Our minds should meet in a serious, mutually needed search for common understandings. It was a neatly written letter. Sometimes the preposition is kept: The room even had a faint perfume about it which gave it a lived-in air. As a postmodifier participle II manifests its verbal character more explicitly, even when it stands alone. It may be accompanied by a preposition, by an agentive by-object, an adverb and prepositional phrases as adverbial modifiers. Things seen are mightier than things heard. The dictionary referred to is to be found in our library. These are cities inhabited by their creators. Two women dimly seen in the shadow are talking softly. When participle II or a participial phrase is detached, its position is not fixed. It may occupy the initial position, the mid-position or the final position in the sentence. Detached attributes are separated from the noun by a comma (or commas) in writing and by a pause in speech. They are confined to literary style only. Greatly excited, the children followed her into the garden. Johnson, left in charge of both officers, marched about for a little while. And people hurried by, hidden under their dreadful umbrellas. Participle II as predicative 147. In this function participle II denotes a state, as in: The Fada road is finished, the great idea is realized. You seem surprized. He looks perplexed and troubled. He felt thoroughly disappointed. The door remained locked. Occasionally we come across a participle II with an active meaning used predicatively: The sun is not risen. Everybody is gone. Evening is come. Participle II as adverbial modifier 148. The adverbial function and meaning of participle II can be seen only from the general meaning of the sentence. In the vast majority of cases, when used adverbially, participle II is preceded by a conjunction, which explicitly indicates the semantic type of the adverbial modifier. Participle II may serve as an adverbial modifier of: time, usually with the conjunction when or until: He is very affable when spoken to, but naturally silent. He wont stop arguing until interrupted. reason: Deprived of his wife and son by the Spanish adventure, Jolyon found the solitude at Robin Hill intolerable. condition, mostly with the conjunction if or unless: I shall certainly give evidence on your behalf, if required. John will speak for hours, unless interrupted. concession, with the conjunction though or although: Though asked in disarming sociability, Haldones question was loaded. comparison, with the conjunction as if or as though: I get off the train, he repeated as if hypnotized. Predicative constructions with participle II 149. Participle II forms the second (verbal) element of the objective with the participle construction and of the absolute participial construction in two variants: non-prepositional and prepositional. 150. The objective participial construction with participle II. The objective participial construction with participle II consists of a noun in the common case or a personal pronoun in the objective case and participle II forming a syntactical complex, in which the two components are in a preducative relationship. I must have my watch mended. I never heard him spoken of badly.=5 =C6=> ?>G8=8BL G0AK. / =8:>340 =5 A;KH0;, GB>1K > =5< ?;>E> >B7K20;8AL. The construction functions as a complex object to transitive verbs, mainly verbs (a) of causative meaning, (b) of physical perception, (c) of wish: a) to have, to get, to make You must have your photo taken. Where did you have your hair done? I wont have my best friend laughed at. We must get our tickets registered. The speaker made himself heard with the help of a microphone. Besides the causative meaning suggesting inducement, sentences the verb to have may occasionally express experience or possess participle II emphasizing the resulting state, as in: The patient has an arm broken. I have my task done. If the action is emphasized, the perfect form is preferable: The patient has broken an arm. I have done my task. Notice the difference in translation: # 1>;L=>3> A;><0=0 @C:0. >;L=>9 A;><0; @C:C. >5 7040=85 2K?>;=5=>. / 2K?>;=8; 7040=85. b) to see, to hear, to feel, to find I saw Jane addressed by a stranger. Have you ever heard the writer s name mentioned before? We found the door locked. c) to wish, to want, to like, to prefer I want the answer sent at once. We prefer the letter answered by the chief. Sentences with causative verbs are usually translated into Russian by simple sentences, the causative meaning being evident from the context or the situation. In other cases a complex sentence with an object clause is preferable. 151. The nominative absolute participial construction with participle II. The construction consists of the nominal element (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case) and participle II which form a syntactical complex, the nominal element and the participle being in subject-predicate relation. The preparation completed, we started off. The nominative absolute participial construction with participle being has the syntactical function of a detached adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances (a), manner (b), time (c), reason (d), condition (e). a) The next day I observed you - myself unseen - for half an hour. She was smoking now, her eyes narrowed thoughtfully. b) He sat on the sofa, his legs crossed. c) The duster refolded and restored, he threw his legs across the saddle. Give it to Harriet, please, was then the direction, and she can put it away. This said, he turned and fixed his eyes on Mrs. Bretton. d) We began to talk, but my attention distracted by my surroundings, I took small notice of him. e) He was a gentleman, but he was passionate, the cup once sipped, would he consent to put it down? 152. The prepositional absolute construction with participle II. This construction differs from the discussed above in that it is introduced by the preposition with and its nominal element is hardly ever presented by a pronoun; it is more closely related to the predicate verb and is seldom set off by a comma. She went on reading with her eyes fixed on the pages of the book. It is unhealthy to sleep with the windows shut. The main syntactical function of the construction is that of an adverbial modifier of manner or attendant circumstances. An additional idea of time, reason, or condition may be prompted by the context, as in: I cant walk with my leg broken (reason). MODAL VERBS 153. Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions to states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus modal verbs may show that the action (or state, or process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by the comminicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive. There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should ought, shall, will, would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only in one of their meanings. Ten of them (that is, all but to be and to have) are also called defective or anomalous verbs as they lack some features characteristic of other verbs, that is: 1) they do not take -s in the third person singular; 2) they have no verbals, so they have no analytical forms; 3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense; 4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive without the particle to); 5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms. All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted. full form may not must not would not should not need notcontracted form maynt mustnt wouldnt shouldnt neednt Some of them have peculiarities both in spelling and pronunciation: cannot shall not will notCant [ka:nt] Shant [+"a:nt] Won t [wount] Can 154. This modal verb has two forms: can - for the present tense and could - for the past tense and for the subjunctive mood. I can t dance now but I could when I was young. I wish I could go with you. I. Can followed by the non-perfect common aspect infinitive expresses: 1. Physical and mental ability or capacity. The notion of ability is also expressed by to be able to. Mary can speak English quite well but she cant write it at all (can = to be able, to know how to...). John can keep a secret if he wants to (can = to be capable of). I can drive a car = I know how to... I couldnt understand him when he spoke very fast (= was unable to, was incapable of...). He could (was able to) speak English very well when he was twelve. The meaning of ability is expressed only by to be able to when the reference is to the future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form. Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently. Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere capacity, I couldnt/was not able to do that new job; it was too difficult. This man could/was able to cure all diseases. But only to be able to is used to express attainment or achievement of something through some capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of ability and achievement. In this case was able to means managed to or succeeded in, and could is impossible. The fire brigade was able (succeeded in putting, managed) to put out the fire before it destroyed the other buildings. >60@=K5 AC<5;8, 8< C40;>AL ... I was able to go to the mountains yesterday as I had a day off (I could and went). I was able to finish my work in an hour (I managed, I could and did it). 2. Possibility. a) possibility due to circumstances: Anybody can make a mistake. H810BLAO <>65B :064K9. You can hardly blame him for that. @O4 ;8 <>6=> 53> 70 MB> 28=8BL. I couldn t take your coat without paying you for it. b) possibility due to the existing rules of laws: In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.  AB0@K5 2@5<5=0 <>6=> 1K;> ?@83>2>@8BL G5;>25:0 : A<5@B8 70 =51>;LH>5 ?@5ABC?;5=85. The Lower House alone can initiate financial measures. ">;L:> 0;0B0 ?@54AB028B5;59 <>65B 2K=>A8BL =0 @0AA<>B@5=85 D8=0=A>2K5 2>?@>AK. c) possibility of the idea (the so-called theoretical possibility): The railways can be improved. (It is possible for the railways to be improved, as they are not yet perfect.) In general statements of possibility can has roughly the same meaning as sometimes. The sea can be rough. = The sea is sometimes rough. Mope 8=>340 1K205B 1C@=K<. Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility. Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) 5C65;8 MB> ?@0240? This can t be true. (It is impossible that this is true.) 3. Permission. Can we go home, Miss? >6=> 84B8 4><>9, <8AA? 5 can go now. "5?5@L >= <>65B 84B8. The teacher said we could go home. #G8B5;L @07@5H8; =0< 84B8 4><>9. Can is now more common than may (or might) to express the idea permission. 4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal verb, as prohibition may be understood as the negation of permission - not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the Russian =5;L7O, =5 =04>. You can t cross the street here. 45AL =5;L7O ?5@5E>48BL C;8FC. You can t touch the exhibits in a museum (it is not allowed). - Can we stay here? - No, I m afraid you can t. (It s not allowed.) 5. Request. Can you hold on a minute, please? Can I have some water? Can you put the meat in salted water? Could suggests a greater degree of politeness: Could you come again tomorrow? II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express: 1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative form of the modal verb + perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, or be. He cant be working at this time (its impossible that he is working...) He cant have seen it (its impossible that he saw it). He cant be there.- He <>65B 1KBL, GB>1K >= @01>B0; A59G0A. - He <>65B 1KBL, GB>1K >= 2845; MB>. - He <>65B 1KBL, GB>1K >= 1K; B0<. Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity. The time-reference is indicated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive. HeCan t Couldn tbe so old.- He <>65B 1KBL, GB> >= B0: AB0@. 5Can t Couldn tbe telling the truth.- =5 <>65B 1KBL, GB> >= 3>2>@8B ?@024C. HeCan t Couldn thave told the truth.- =5 <>65B 1KBL, GB>1K >= A:070; ?@024C.  2. Surprise, when can/could is used in questions. It corresponds to the Russian =5C65;8 ... Can it be so late as all that? 5C65;8 C65 B0: ?>74=>? "> refer the action to the past a perfect infinitive is used. Could he have known her before? 5C65;8 >= 7=0; 55 @0=LH5? Could he have been telling her the truth? Can (could) he have let you down? The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative form. Therefore the Russian negative questions of the type - =ey6e;8 >= =5 ... is translated into English in different ways: a) by complex sentences: Can if be that you haven t seen him? 5C65;8 2K =5 2845;8 53>? b) by different lexical means: Can you have failed to see him? 5C65;8 2K =5 2845;8 53>? Can you dislike the book? 5C65;8 20< =5 =@028BAO MB0 :=830? Can nobody have seen him? 5C65;8 =8:B> =5 2845; 53>? Can he have never written that letter? 5C65;8 >= B0: 8 =5 =0?8A0; ?8AL<>? 3. Reproach, implying that a person should have done something, or behaved in a certain way, but didn t do it. This meaning is found only with the form could. You could at least have met me at the station, couldn t you? In this sense could is interchangeable with might. 4. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose. I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it. Note some set expressions with the modal verb can: Cannot/cant help doing smth. - He <>3C =5 45;0BL GB>-B> When I saw him I couldn t help laughing. - >340 O C2845; 53>, O =5 <>3 =5 70A<5OBLAO. Cannot/can t but do smth. - =5 <>3C =5 ... I cannot but suggest... - / =5 <>3C =5 ?@54;>68BL ... We cannot but hope he is right. - 0< >AB05BAO B>;L:> =045OBLAO, GB>... (=5 <>65< =5 =045OBLAO...) One cannot but wonder - =5;L7O =5 704C<0BLAO as can be - an intensifying expression They are as pleased as can be. - =8 >G5=L (AB@0H=>) 4>2>;L=K. It s as ugly as can be. - -B> =5>1KG09=> C@>4;82> (B@C4=> A515 ?@54AB028BL GB>-;81> 1>;55 >B2@0B8B5;L=>5). May 155. This modal verb has two forms: may for the present tense and might for the past and as the subjunctive mood form. Thus the form might is used: a) in indirect speech according to the rules of the sequence of tenses (though the verb could is preferable in this case). He told me that I might go. The librarian told the man that he might take the book home. b) in some syntactical patterns requiring the subjunctive mood forms: However hard he might (or may) try, he will never manage to do the same. Ive brought you the book so that you may write your paper. I. May followed by the non-perfect common infinitive expresses: 1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to, to be allowed to, to be permitted to. You may go now (you are allowed to go). May we leave this with you? (Are we allowed to...? Is it all right if we leave it here?) In polite requests for permission might is used. Might I use your telephone, please? I wonder if I might borrow your book. Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of permission, but may is often used when talking of ourselves. May/might I help you? When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable. When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took a Longman new dictionary. 2. Possibility of the fact (the so-called factual possibility).This meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences. You may find all the books you want in the National Library. (It is possible that you will find...) The railways may be improved. (It is possible that the railways will be improved.) The above sentence could suggest that there are definite plans for improvement. May expressing possibility is avoided in questions and in negative sentences, instead can is used. 3. Prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb). You may not go swimming. (You are not allowed to ...) - He A<59... You may not enter the room until I say so. - He A<59... The contracted form mayn t is also very rare. There are other ways of expressing the idea of prohibition which are more common. They are mustn t, can t, and don t. Mustn t and can t are often found in negative answers to express prohibition instead of may not. II. May (might) followed by any form of the infinitive denotes: 1. Supposition, uncertainty. May in this sense is synonymous with perhaps or maybe, and occurs in affirmative and negative statements. This news is so strange that you may not believe it. (Perhaps you wont believe it.) He may come or he may not. (>65B 1KBL, >= ?@845B, 0 <>65B 8 =5B.) She may not know that you are here. (Perhaps she doesn t know that you are here.) Why hasn t he come? He may have been hurt. (Perhaps he has been hurt. We still don t know whether he has or has not.) Why aren t you at the station? They may be arriving. The non-perfect infinitive indicates reference to the present or future, that is, it expresses supposition or uncertainty about a present or future action. They may arrive tonight or tomorrow. The perfect infinitive indicates reference to the past. May (might) in the sense of supposition or uncertainty is not used in questions, instead some other means are used: Is it (he) likely ... ? or Do you think ... ? Is Mary likely to arrive tonight? Do you think he has already come? Note: The difference between the meaning of the negative forms of can and may: He may not be ill.= It is possible that he isnt ill. He may not be working. = It is possible that he isnt working.He cant be ill. = It is not possible that he is ill. He cant be working. = It is impossible that he is working. Can + negation in these sentences denotes doubt, incredulity on the part of the speaker, whereas may expresses uncertainty about a negation of some fact. 2. Reproach. This meaning is found only in positive statements and only with the form might as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some unfulfilled action. You might at least offer to help. In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out. You might have opened the door for me. 3. May/might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary (see 80): a) in clauses of purpose: Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. He died so that others might live. b) in clauses of concession: Try as he may he will never be top of his class. However hard he might try, he never managed it. c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope, wish, fear: The doctor has fears that she may not live much longer. The prisoner had hopes that he might be set free. Here are some expressions with the modal verb may/might: I may/might as well + infinitive is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an intention. I may as well take you with me. It can be used with other persons to suggest or recommend an action. You may as well give him the letter. Might just as well means it would be equally good to and is used to suggest alternative actions. Though the meaning is basically the same as in three previous sentences, just makes the sentence more emphatic. - Ill go on Monday by a slow train. - You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one. - Ill do it at six. - Thats far too late. You might just as well not do it at all. Must 156. The modal verb must has only one form for the present tense. It may also be used in reported speech, after the verb in the past tense in the principal clause. I knew I must go there too. I. Must followed by the non-perfect common infinitive may express: 1. Immediate obligation or necessity, or an obligation referring to the future. This meaning occurs in positive statements and questions. We must begin before five, or we shan t finish in time for our supper. He must move the furniture himself. I can t help him. Must you really go so soon? In this sense the verb must corresponds to the Russian =04>, =C6=>, 4>;65=. Do it if you must (5A;8 =C6=>, 45;09B5). I must go now (<=5 =C6=> 84B8). Must expresses obligation or compulsion from the speaker s viewpoint (unlike  have to , which involves some other authority than the speaker, such as official regulations, etc.). You must be back at 2 oclock. I want you to do some cooking. You must call me Sir (I like it that way). Obligations expressed by must refer to the present or future, in reported speech they may refer to the past. James said we must invite the Stewarts to dinner. Future obligations can be made more precise with the future indefinite of the verb have to. Ill have to read it again. We shall have to give you a new copy of the book. Since the negative form of must denotes a negative obligation or sometimes prohibition (sec item 2), it cannot express absence of necessity which is expressed by neednt. - Must I go? - No, you neednt, if you dont want to. Must is used interchangeably with to be to for instructions, notices, or orders. Passangers must cross the lines by the footbridge (the railway company instructs them to). Applications for admission to the Students Room of the Department of Manuscripts must be accompanied by a letter of recommendation. This card must be surrendered with your room key on vacating Astor College. All rooms must be vacated by 11 a.m. and the keys handed to the porter on the day of departure. Guests must be out of the building by midnight. In all the above cases must is preferable. With a 2nd person subject must expresses an obligation which has the same effect as a command. You must do as you are told. You must be careful. You must go now. I want to go to bed. You must change your shoes, I wont have you in here with muddy feet. 2. Prohibition. Such sentences are sometimes negative commands, corresponding to the Russian sentences with =5;L7O, =5 @07@5H05BAO. The girl mustn t go home alone. It s very late. Cars must not be parked in front of this gate. You mustn t do that! You mustn t come into the ward, it s against the rules.- 52>G:5 =5;L7O 84B8 4><>9 >4=>9. - He @07@5H05BAO >AB02;OBL <0H8=K ?5@54 2>@>B0<8. - He 45;09B5 MB>3>! - 5;L7O 70E>48BL 2 ?0;0BC, MB> 70?@5I5=>.  3. Invitations. You must come and see me sometime. - K >1O70B5;L=> 4>;6=K =025AB8BL <5=O :0:-=81C4L. You must come and have dinner with us. You must come and see our picture gallery. This use of must renders emphasis to the sentence. II. When combined with any form of the infinitive must expresses probability, near certainty. It has the same meaning as the modal words probably, evidently. In this sense must occurs only in positive statements and corresponds to the Russian modal words 25@>OB=>, 4>;6=> 1KBL. He must be mad (it seems certain that he is mad). He must be lonely (probably he is lonely). With verbs which admit of the continuous aspect, the continuous infinitive should be used for reference to the present. Wheres Nell? She must be sightseeing now (she is probably sightseeing). John isnt here. He must be working in the garden. Jane is busy. She must be packing for the trip. The perfect infinitive indicates a past action. Did you always live with your father? You must have led quite a busy social life (evidently you led...). The perfect continuous infinitive indicates the duration of the past action, a process in the past. It must have been raining when you left (evidently it was raining when you left). They must have been working all the lime. They look very tired (evidently they have been working all the time). Must expressing probability is not used: a) with reference to the future. Instead of the modal verb the adverbs probably and evidently are used. He will probably feel lonely. b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative meaning of probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns, or lexically. 1. You must have misunderstood me. 2. They must have been inattentive. 3. She must have failed to recognize you. 4. He must have had no chance to warn you. 5. The letter must have never reached them. 6. The letter must have been left unanswered. 7. No one must have seen him there. 8 . He must be quite unaware of the circumstances. Besides the above mentioned shades of meaning, sometimes accompanied by emphasis, the modal verb must may be used solely for the sake of emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasises some action or idea. Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby must catch measles (@515=>: 24@C3 701>;5; :>@LN, @515=>: 2>7L<8 8 701>;59 :>@LN). Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the opposites (... >=0 24@C3 ?>948 8 A45;09 =0>1>@>B). As we were starting what must he do but cut his finger (... >= 2>7L<8 40 8 ?>@56L A515 ?0;5F). At a time when everybody is in bed he must turn on the wireless (... >= 24@C3 2:;NG05B ?@85<=8:). To have to, have got to 157. As a modal verb to have to differs from the others in that it is not defective. It can have the category of person and number and all tense-aspect forms, as well as verbals. It is followed by a to-infinitive and combines only with the non-perfect form of it. As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow. We had to look all over town before we found what we wanted. She wont have to walk the whole way, will she? Having to go so soon we were afraid of missing the man. Have to builds up its interrogative and negative forms with the help of the auxiliary verb to do. Do you have to work so hard? Do you have to leave already? He doesnt have to be here before Friday. You dont have to do what your sister tells you. Why does he have to go there? The modal verb to have to expresses: I. Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must (1). It corresponds to the Russian ?@8E>48BAO, 2K=C645=. She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (59 ?@8E>48BAO ;5B5BL, >=0 2K=C645=0 ;5B5BL). My sister has a lot of friends in different parts of the country, so she has to write lots of letters (59 ?@8E>48BAO...). In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation. We had to do a lot of things during the week we stayed in the country (were obliged and did it). They made such a noise that I had to send one of the boys to make inquiries (it was necessary and I did it). Have to replaces must where must cannot be used: a) to express past necessity or obligation, b) to express absence of necessity (in the sense of neednt), since must not means prohibition, and c) to express a future obligation, since the future tense of the verb have to makes the obligation more precise. a) We had to do it again. They had to do what they were told. b) You dont have to make another copy of the document, Miss Black; this copy will be quite satisfactory. c) Youll have to take a taxi if you mean to catch the train. Have to as a modal verb can be used together with the modal verb may: We may have to wait long here. - 0< 2>7<>6=> ?@845BAO 4>;3> 745AL 640BL. Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. The difference lies in that have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action. Do you have to get up early every morning? Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning? To be to 158. To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past indefinite tenses. To be to expresses: 1. An obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and questions. We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.) I am to go down in my car and pick up the parcels. When is the wedding to be? When am I to come? Who is to be the first? The ship was to dock on Sunday. I was to meet Mother at the dentists at 11. The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the action did or did not take place. On the other hand this form is the only way to indicate a fulfilled action in the past. I was to meet Mother at 11 (and I did). The prize was to honour him for his great discoveries. To emphasize that the action did not take place the perfect infinitive is used after the past indefinite of the verb to be to. She was to have graduated in June, but unfortunately fell ill. The present indefinite may signify an arrangement (especially official) for the future, or referring to no particular time. The German Chancellor is to visit France. A knife is to cut with. 2. A strict order or an instruction given either by the speaker or (more usually) by some official authority. He is to return to Liverpool tomorrow (he has been given orders to return to Liverpool). You are to stay here until I return (I tell you to ...). You are to do it exactly the way you are told. Note the difference between to be to and to have to: Soldiers have to salute their officers (such is customary obligation, the general rule). All junior officers are to report to the colonel at once (an order). 3. Strict prohibition (only in the negative form). You are not to do that. You are not to tell anybody about it. We are not to leave the place until we are told to. You are not to smoke in this room. 4. Something that is destined to happen or is unavoidable. It corresponds to the Russian AC645=>, ?@54AB>8B. I didn t know at the time that she was to be my wife (GB> 59 AC645=> 1K;> AB0BL <>59 65=>9). As a young man he didn t know that he was to become a famous scientist (5<C AC645=> 1K;> AB0BL 7=0<5=8BK< CG5=K<). If we are to be neighbours for life we should be on friendly terms (5A;8 =0< ?@54AB>8B 2AN 687=L 1KBL A>A54O<8...). 5 was never to see her again (5<C 1>;LH5 =8:>340 =5 AC645=> 1K;> 55 C2845BL). It was not to be (MB><C =5 AC645=> 1K;> A1KBLAO). Sometimes it may be translated by the Russian verb E>B5BL, especially after the conjunction if. If we are to get there on time, we must start at once (5A;8 <K E>B8< ?@89B8 2>2@5<O, =04> A@07C >B?@02;OBLAO). 5. Impossibility. In negative sentences or in sentences containing words with negative meaning the verb to be to implies impossibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect infinitive is used, unless it is a question beginning with the interrogative adverbs how, where. They are not to be trusted. Nothing was to be done under the circumstances. He was nowhere to be found. Where is the man to be found? How am I to repay you for your kindness? This meaning is similar to the meaning of can and may. Here are some set expressions with the verb to be to: What am I to do? 'B> <=5 45;0BL? 0: <=5 1KBL? What is to become of me? 'B> A> <=>N AB0=5BAO (1C45B)? Where am I to go? C40 65 <=5 4520BLAO? Need 159. The modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form and combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms. There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. The regular form is used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action. The defective form is more common when one particular occasion is referred to: Need I do it? You neednt do it just now. The teacher said that we neednt come. Do I need to show my pass every time? You dont need to say it every time you see him. Need I show you my pass now? The defective form is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences, whereas the regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common. Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative statements, where it is a replacement for must or for have (got) to. Do you need to work so hard (do you have to work so hard? Have you got to...). It corresponds to the Russian =C6=>. You needn t do it now. !59G0A =5 =C6=> MB>3> 45;0BL. Need she come tomorrow? 9 =C6=> 702B@0 ?@8E>48BL? The negation is not always combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of the sentence. I don't think we need mention him at all. I need hardly say that you are to blame. In questions need is used when there is a strong element of negation or doubt or when the speaker expects a negative answer. Need she go there? (hoping for a negative answer) I wonder if I need go there, (statement of doubt) In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of time or effort, and is therefore translated by 7@O, =570G5<, =5 : G5<C 1K;>. You needn t have spent all the money. Now we've got nothing left. @O BK ?>B@0B8; 2A5 45=L38, =5 : G5<C 1K;> B@0B8BL ... . We needn t have waited for her because she never came at all. 5G53> 1K;> 55 640BL. =0 2A5 @02=> =5 ?@8H;0. The difference between the two forms of need in negative sentences is as follows: the regular verb indicates that the action was not done because it was unnecessary, whereas the defective verb shows that the action, although unnecessary, was carried out. Compare the following examples: Didnt need to do smth = It wasnt necessary, so probably not done. We didnt need to say anything at all, which was a great comfort. She didnt need to open the drawer because it was already open. Neednt have done smth. = It was not necessary, but done nonetheless. You neednt have said anything. Then he would never have known about it. She neednt have opened the drawer. She found it empty when she did. Ought to 160. The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech. Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the action to the past. You ought to be ashamed of yourself. I told him that he ought to do it, so he did it. She told him he ought not to go away. Ought expresses: 1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian A;54C5B. You ought to look after your children better (you don t always do it). 0< A;54C5B 1>;LH5 701>B8BLAO > 45BOE. I wonder whether I oughtn t to speak to him. He ought to be punished, oughtn t he? When used with the perfect infinitive ought means that something right has not been done, a desirable action has not been carried out, and it, therefore, implies reproach. You ought to have helped him (but you didn t). 0< A;54>20;> 1K 5<C ?><>GL. 5 ought to have been more careful (he was not careful enough). <C A;54>20;> 1K 1KBL 1>;55 >AB>@>6=K<. Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach. She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it). You oughtnt to have laughed at his mistakes. The opposite to ought to is neednt used to mean that the action is unnecessary. We ought to wash the dishes, but we neednt dry them, because they will dry themselves. 2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability). You ought to see a doctor. We really ought to buy a new car, oughtnt we? 3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian 4>;6=> 1KBL, =025@=>5. You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I m not certain). K, =025@=>5, C65 ?@>3>;>40;8AL. Apples ought to grow well here. 45AL 4>;6=K E>@>H> @0AB8 O1;>:8. If he started at nine he ought to be here by four (he will probably be here by four). There oughtnt to be any difficulty (its unlikely that there will be). Black Beauty is the horse that ought to win the race(... is likely to win ...). In this sense ought is a weaker equivalent of must when the latter denotes near certainty. Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of I wish you could. You ought to hear the way he plays the piano! Should 161. Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs. Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and future and is not changed in reported speech. You should be more careful. 0< A;54C5B 1KBL 2=8<0B5;L=55. I told him he should be more careful. Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide. It expresses: 1. Moral obligation, moral duty, which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences. However ought to is preferable in this sense: All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don t). !BC45=BK 4>;6=K A40BL @01>BC : A53>4=OH=5<C 4=N. Private firearms should be banned. 8G=>5 >@C685 A;54C5B 70?@5B8BL. 5 should phone his parents tonight, but lie probably won t have time. = 4>;65= ?>72>=8BL, =>, 25@>OB=>, C =53> =5 1C45B 2@5<5=8 =0 MB>. If you see anything strange you should call the police. A;8 BK C2848HL GB>-B> AB@0==>5, BK 4>;65= 2K720BL ?>;8F8N. When used in the negative form should denotes a weakened prohibition, more like negative advice. He shouldn t be so impatient. When combined with the perfect infinitive should denotes criticism, faultfinding; the statement indicates that something desirable has not been done. Your shoes are wet. You should have stayed at home. You should have put more sugar in the pie. It isnt sweet enough. He hasnt brought the book back, though he should have brought it last week. A negative statement indicates that something wrong has been done. You shouldnt have done that. It was stupid. (0< =5 A;54>20;> MB> 45;0BL). They should never have married. They are so unhappy. < 2>>1I5 =5 A;54>20;> (=5 =C6=> 1K;>) 65=8BLAO. 5 shouldn t have taken the corner at such speed. <C =5 A;54>20;> ?>2>@0G820BL 70 C3>; =0 B0:>9 A:>@>AB8. 2. Advice, desirability. This meaning is more common with ought to than with should. You should stay in bed. 0< =C6=> (A;54C5B) ;560BL 2 ?>AB5;8. I think you should read this book. C<0N, GB> B515 A;54C5B (AB>8B) ?@>G5ABL MBC :=83C. You should consult a doctor. >:070;AO 1K BK 2@0GC. ("515 A;54C5B ?>:070BLAO 2@0GC.) As is seen from the above examples, it is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the first and the second meaning. 3. Probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the present or future). The effect of the tax should be felt in high prices (will probably be felt). We needn t get ready yet. The guests shouldn t come for another hour. >AB8 2@O4 ;8 ?@84CB @0=LH5, G5< G5@57 G0A. Shall 162. In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning of obligation with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense. As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation. Shall combined with only a non-perfect infinitive expresses: 1. Promise, oath, or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd person with a weak stress. It shall be done as you wish. You shall never know a sad moment, Lenny, if I can help it. He shall get his money.  I want this luggage taken to my room .  It shall be taken up at once, sir. - 3> A59G0A 65 >B=5ACB =025@E, AM@. In the 1st person shall in this sense acquires a strong stress. I want that prize and I  shall win it. 2. Threat or warning (shall is used in this meaning in the 2nd and 3rd person). That day shall come. She shall pay for it, she shall. The child shall be punished for it. I wont allow it. Anyone found guilty shall be shot at once. In the first two senses shall is used in affirmative and negative sentences. 3. A suggestion or offer It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive. Shall I get you a chair? Yes, please. @8=5AB8 20< ABC;? - >60;C9AB0. Shall we begin? - Yes, let s. (0<) =0G8=0BL? - 0209B5. Shall I read? - Please, do. =5 G8B0BL? - '8B09B5, ?>60;C9AB0. The above three meanings are closely connected with the old meaning of obligation which is at present not common in spoken English and which is normally confined to formal or archaic style (official regulations or other documents). The Society s nominating committee shall nominate the person for the office of president (...4>;6=K 2KAB028BL :0=4840B0...). This meaning is found in subordinate clauses. It has been decided that the nomination shall not he opposed. Will 163. Like shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for the present tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ. I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses: 1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Russian by =5?@5<5==>, >1O70B5;L=>, >E>B=>. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past. I will write as soon as I can. (/ =5?@5<5==> =0?8HC, :0: B>;L:> A<>3C.) I will be there to help. (/ >1O70B5;L=> B0< 1C4C 8 ?><>3C.) I can and will learn it. (/ <>3C 2KCG8BL 8 >1O70B5;L=> MB> 2KCGC.) When he was young, he was so poor that he would do anything to earn some money. (... >= A>3;0A5= 1K; =0 ;N1CN @01>BC, GB>1 ?>470@01>B0BL.) This meaning is often found in conditional sentences. If you will help me we can finish by six. A;8 2K A>3;0A8B5AL <=5 ?><>GL, <K <>65< :>=G8BL : 6 G0A0<. If you will wait for me I ll be very grateful. When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something. I wont accept your offer (I refuse to ...). They wouldnt listen to me (they refused to listen to me). He wouldnt answer my question (he refused to answer ...). 2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions. Will you pass the salt, please? Will you haw some tea? In comparison with will the form would renders a greater degree of politeness. Would you please pass the salt? Would you please lend me your pencil? It is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so kind as to... Would you be so kind as to lend me your book? 3. A command (in military contexts it is a strict command). Officers will report for duty at 06.00. You will do exactly as I say. You will go in there and tell him that the game is up. An impatient command can begin with will you. Will you be quiet! - 0<>;G8HL, ;8 BK =0:>=5F? Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced with the falling tone). Don t be late, will you? But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience. Sit down, will you? Shut the door, will you? Shut the door, wont you? Would is never used in this meaning. 4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed when used in this sense. He will try to mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself). With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its function. It occurs in negative statements and corresponds to the Russian =8:0: =5. The door will not open. The orange won t peel. The engine wouldn t start. The wound wouldn t heal.- 25@L =8:0: =5 >B:@K205BAO. - ?5;LA8= =8:0: =5 >G8AB8BL. - >B>@ =8:0: =5 702>48;AO - 0=0 =8:0: =5 706820;0. 5. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected. What will be will be. Accidents will happen. Boys will be boys. Truth will out.- '5<C 1KBL, B>3> =5 <8=>20BL. - 5AG0AB=K5 A;CG08 =587156=K (=5AG0AB=K9 A;CG09 <>65B ?@>87>9B8 A :064K<). - 0;LG8H:8 2A5340 >AB0NBAO <0;LG8H:0<8. - AB8=K =5 CB08HL. This sort of inevitability or prediction often occurs in sentences with conditional clauses. If people study they will learn. (If people study they learn) If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red (it turns red). This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb. Oil will float on water. Children will often be full of life when their parents are tired. This car will hold six people comfortably. Thats exactly like Jocelyn - she would lose the key. 6. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is found mainly in responses. It corresponds to the Russian MB>3> 8 A;54>20;> >6840BL, =0 =53> ?>E>65.  I know she attended the place.  Oh, yes, she would. - >=5G=>, GB> 5I5 <>6=> >6840BL.  H5 refused to interfere.  He would.  0 =53> ?>E>65.  I don t like it and I don t visit the place.  No, you wouldn t. (I didn t expect you would.) You would be late! - >=5G=>, BK >?OBL >?>740;. You would forget. - >=5G=> 65, 2K 701K;8. II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express prediction, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must). This will be just what she wants. That will be my wife. This will be our train. That would be he! John will have arrived by now (by tomorrow).- -B>, >G5284=>, B>, G53> >=0 E>G5B. - -B>, :>=5G=>, <>O 65=0. - -B>, =025@=>5, =0H ?>574. - -B>, =025@=>5, >=. - 6>= =025@=O:0 C65 ?@8545B : MB><C 2@5<5=8 (: 702B@0H=5<C 4=N). In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past. That would be in 1910, I think. Why are you asking him? 5 wouldn t know anything about it. Who is the man? You wouldn t know him./ 4C<0N, MB>, =025@=>5, 1K;> 2 1910 3>4C. 0G5< 2K 53> A?@0H8205B5? @O4 ;8 >= GB>-;81> >1 MB>< 7=05B. @O4 ;8 2K 53> 7=05B5. Note the expression: You would, would you? - Ax, BK B0:! Dare 164. The modal verb dare may be defective or regular. As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the present tense and dared for the past tense. It is used chiefly in interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning - to have the courage or independence to do something, to venture. How dare he speak to you like that? (I wonder at such impudence.) How dare you sneak into my room like this? He darent write anything in case it isn't good (he hasnt got the courage). Dare you ask him? (Are you brave enough to ask him?) Thats as much as I dare spend on it. As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite forms and no verbals. It may have two meanings: 1. To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is used mainly in negative statements. He didnt dare to stop me (he didnt have the courage). She doesnt dare to answer. Dont you dare to touch me. 2. To challenge, to defy. I dared him to jump (I challenged him to do it). I dare you to say this straight to her face. - >?@>1C9, A:068 59 MB> ?@O<> 2 ;8F>. Note the following combinations with the modal verb dare. I dare say  I suppose, no doubt. I dare say you are right. - G5=L 2>7<>6=>, GB> 2K ?@02K. I dare say he will come later. - >;030N (?>60;C9), >= ?@845B ?>765. THE NOUN 165. The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things (book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England), materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep, consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness, courage). Semantic characteristics 166. Semantically all nouns fall into proper nouns and common nouns. 167. Proper nouns are geographical names (New York, the Thames, Asia, the Alps), names of individual (unique) persons (John, Byron, Brown), names of the months and the days of the week (January, Sunday), names of planets (the Moon, the Sun, the Earth), names of ships, hotels, clubs (Shepherd's Hotel), of buildings, streets, parks, bridges (Buckingham Palace, Trafalgar Square, Regent Street, Charing Cross Road, Piccadilly Circus, Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Waterloo Bridge), of institutions, organizations, magazines and newspapers (the United Nations, the New Times, the Guardian). They are written with capitals. 168. Common nouns can be classified into nouns denoting objects that can be counted and those that cannot. So there are count and non-count and collective common nouns. The former are inflected for number, whereas the latter are not. Further distinction is into concrete nouns, abstract nouns and nouns of material. Semantic classification of English nouns is shown in the following scheme:  Concrete nouns semantically fall into three subclasses. 1. Nouns denoting living beings - persons and animals: boy, girl, dog, cat. 2. Nouns denoting inanimate objects: table, chair. 3. Collective (A>18@0B5;L=K5) nouns denoting a group of persons: family, crowd. There are some nouns which may be classified both as count and non-count. They often have considerable difference in meaning in the two classes. Count nounsNon-count nounsHe used to read an evening paper. She was a beauty. They hoped to have pleasant experiences. I saw him in a group of youths.They wrappped up the present in brown paper. Beauty is to be admired. He has a great deal of experience. Vie was speaking with the enthusiasm of youth. A noun of material used as a count noun undergoes a semantic change so as to denote: kind of, type of: He found her drinking Chinese tea, which she didn't like but what could one do, other teas were common. The same can be seen in the title A. Conan Doyle devised for a story "Upon the Distinction Between the Ashes of the Various Tobaccos". Morphological composition 169. According to their morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple, derived, and compound. Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, chair, room, roof, leaf. Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes). The main noun-forming suffixes are those forming abstract nouns and those forming concrete, personal nouns. Abstract nounsConcrete nouns-age: leakage, vicarage -al: betrayal, portrayal, refusal -ancy/-ency: vacancy, tendency -dom:freedom kingdom -hood: brotherhood, childhood -ing: meaning, cleaning -ion/~sion/-tion/-ation: operation, tension, examination -ism: darvinism, patriotism -ment: agreement, unemployment -ness: darkness, weakness -ship: friendship, membership -ty: cruelty, sanity, banality -th: growth, strength -y: difficulty, honesty-(i)an: physician, Parisian, republican -ant/-ent: assistant, student, informant -arian: vegetarian -55: refugee, employee, payee -er: teacher, worker, singer -ician: musician, politician -ist: socialist, artist -or: visitor, actor -let: booklet, leaflet -ess: actress, tigress, waitress -ine: heroine -ix: proprietrix -ette: usherette The four suffixes -ess, -ine, -ette are feminine. Sometimes nouns formed by abstract noun suffixes may come to denote concrete things or persons as in translation (a process and its result), beauty (may denote an abstract notion and a beautiful woman). Compound nouns consist of at least two stems. The meaning of a compound is not a mere sum of its elements. The main types of compound nouns are: noun stem + noun stem: seaman (<>@O:), airmail (0280?>GB0)adjective stem + noun stem: bluebell (:>;>:>;LG8:), blackbird (G5@=K9 4@>74)verb stem + noun stem: pickpocket (:0@<0==K9 2>@)gerund + noun stem: looking-glass (75@:0;>), dancing-hall (B0=F520;L=K9 70;)noun stem + prepositions + noun stem: father-in-law (A25:@, B5ABL) mother-in-law (A25:@>2L, B5I0) man-of-war (2>5==K9 :>@01;L)substantivised phrases:forget-me-not (=5701C4:0), pick-me-up (B>=878@CNI89 =0?8B>:) Morphological characteristics 170. Morphologically nouns are characterized by the grammatical categories of number and case. Gender does not find regular morphological expression. The distinction of male, female, and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun: masculine (names of male beings)- boy, man, husband, bachelor, ox, cock; feminine (names of female beings)- girl, woman, wife, maid, cow, hen; neuter (names of inanimate objects)- table, house. The distinction may be also expressed by word-formation of different types: a) feminine suffixes -ess (actress, hostess, poetess, tigress), -ine (heroine), -ette (usherette); b) compounds of different patterns: noun + noun stempronoun + noun stemTom-cat doctor dog-otter male-frog cock-pheasant - Tabby-cat - woman-doctor - bitch-otter - female-frog - hen-pheasanthe-wolf he-cousin - she-wolf - she-cousin There are also some traditional associations of certain nouns with gender. These are apparent in the use of personal or possessive pronouns: a) moon and earth are referred to as feminine, sun as masculine: It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold and the moon in her chariot of pearl. At first the earth was large, but every moment she grew smaller. b) the names of vessels (ship, boat, steamer, ice-breaker, cruiser, etc.) are referred to as feminine: The new ice-breaker has started on her maiden voyage. She is equipped with up-to-date machinery. c) the names of vehicles (car, carriage, coach) may also be referred to as feminine, especially by their owners, to express their affectionate attitude to these objects: She is a fine car. d) the names of countries, if the country is not considered as a mere geographical territory, are referred to as feminine: England is proud of her poets. But: If the name of the country is meant as a geographical one the pronoun it is used. Iceland is an island, it is washed on three sides by the Atlantic Ocean. The category of number 171. English nouns that are inflected for number (count nouns) have singular and plural forms. Singular denotes one, plural denotes more than one. Most count nouns are variable and can occur with either singular or plural number. In Modern English the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by the inflexion -(e)s. The spelling and the pronunciation of the plural morpheme vary. 172. Regular plurals I. Nouns ending in vowels and voiced consonants have the plural ending pronouced as [z]: bee - bees [bi:z], dog - dogs [dTgz] II. Nouns ending in voiceless consonants have a voiceless ending: book - books [buks] III. Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -as, -ch, -x, -z, (sibilants) have the ending [iz]: actress - actresses ['ktrjsjz] bush - bushes ['bu+"jz] watch - watches ['wot+"jzj box - boxes ['boksjz] IV. Nouns ending in -o have the ending [z]: hero - heroes ['hjrouz] photo- photoes ['foutouz] The regular plural inflexion of nouns in -o has two spellings; -os which occurs in the following cases: a) after a vowel - bamboos, embryos, folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos; b) in proper names - Romeos, Eskimos, Filipinos; c) in abbreviations, kilos (kilogramme), photos (photograph), pros (professional); d) also in some borrowed words: pianos, concertos, dynamos, quartos, solos, tangos, tobaccos. In other cases the spelling is -oes: tomatoes, echoes, Negroes, potatoes, vetoes, torpedoes, embargoes Note: Some nouns may form their plural in either way: oes/os: cargo(e)s, banjo(e)s, halo(e)s. V. The letter -y usually changes into -i: sky skies [skaiz] But the letter -y remains unchanged -ys: a) after vowels: days (except in nouns ending in -quy: soliloquy - soliloquies). b) in proper names: the two Germanys, the Kennedys, the Gatsbys; c) in compounds: stand-bys, lay-bys. The word penny has two plural forms: pence (irregular) - in British currency to denote a coin of this value or a sum of money: Here is ten pence (in one coin or as a sum of money); pennies (regular) - for individual coins. Here are ten pennies. VI. Thirteen nouns ending in -f(e) form their plural changing -f(e) into -v(e): the ending in this case is pronounced [z]: calf - calves elf - elves half - halves knife - knives leaf - leaveslife - lives loaf - loaves self - selves sheaf - sheaves (A=>?K) shelf  shelvesthief - thieves wife - wives wolf - wolves Other nouns ending in -f(e) have the plural inflexion -s in the regular way: proof - proofs, chief - chiefs, safe - safes, cliff - cliffs, gulf - gulfs, dwarf - dwarfs, reef- reefs, grief - griefs; the ending is pronounced [s]. In a few cases both -fs and -ves forms are possible: scarf - scarfs/scarves, dwarf - dwarfs/dwarves, hoof - hoofs/hooves. VII. Nouns ending in -th after a short vowel have the ending -s [s]: month months [mns]. Nouns ending in -th after a long vowel or a diphthong have [9z] in the plural: baths [ba:z], paths [paz], oaths [ouz]. But: youths [ju:s], births [b:s]. VIII. The plural of abbreviations is sometimes formed in spelling by doubling a letter: Ms (manuscript) p. (page) Mr (Mister) M.P. (Member of Parliament) M.D. (Doctor of Medicine) Co. (Company) - MSS - pp. - Messrs ['mesz] - M.P.s ['em'pi:z] - M.D.s ['em'di:z] - Co.s [kouz] In a phrase like "Miss Brown" two different forms are used for the plural. We may either say "the Miss Browns" or "the Misses Brown", the latter being generally considered more correct. Irregular plurals 173. For historical reasons certain nouns form their plural differently. 1. Seven nouns distinguish plural from singular by vowel change: man - men woman - womentooth - teeth foot feetgoose - geese mouse - mice louse - lice 2. Two nouns have -en to mark the plural: ox - oxen, child - children. Brother has two plural forms: brothers and brethren, the latter being used as a religious term or in elevated style to denote people of the same creed, not relations. 3. With some nouns the plural is identical with the singular form (for details see 176, II): a) sheep-sheep (>2F0/K); swine - swine (A28=LO/8); deer - deer (>;5=L/8); grouse - grouse (:C@>?0B:0/8). This sheep looks small. All those sheep are good. I bought a grouse (three grouse for dinner). There re so many fish, they splinter the paddles. Note: There, are some animal names that have two plurals: fish - fish/fishes, pike - pike/pikes, trout - trout/trouts, carp  carp/carps, salmon - salmon/salmons. The zero plural is more common to denote hunting quarries (We caught only a few fish. We caught five salmon. He shot quail (?5@5?5;>:) to make money), whereas the regular plural is used to denote different individuals, species, kinds of animal, especially fish with the same name or insects or other small animals which cause disease or damage. The plant was covered in greenfly. This animal is infected with hookworm.There are three greenflies on my hand. Two large hookworms were found in his stomach. There were two quails for sale.  b) identical singular and plural forms are also typical of nationality nouns in -ese, -ss: Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Swiss. We met a Japanese. We met many Japanese on our holiday. Note: The word for people of the country is the same as the plural noun; the other way is to use substantivized adjectives in this sense: Englishmen - the English Dutchmen - the Dutch. c) two nouns borrowed from Latin and one from French also have identical forms for singular and plural: series - series (@O4, A5@8O); species - species (284, ?>@>40, @>4) corps [ko:] - corps [ko:z] (:>@?CA, @>4 2>9A:). d) names, indicating number, such as: pair, couple, dozen, score (420 45AOB:0), stone (<5@0 25A0: 14 0=3;. DC=B>2 = 6,35 :3) and head (3>;>20 - ?>3>;>2L5 A:>B0) have the same form for both the singular and plural when they are preceded by a numeral, that is, they function as an indication of a kind of measure: two dozen of handkerchiefs, five dozen of eggs. The child weighs two stone. One thousand head of cattle. But when they have no number as predeterminer they take the usual plural form: dozens of times, to go in pairs. 4. A number of foreign (particularly Latin and Greek) nouns have retained their original plural endings. Loans of Greek origin Singular Plural-is [js] basis crisis analysis thesis parenthesis axis hypothesis diagnosis -on [n] criterion phenomenon -0 [] miasma-es [i:z] bases crises analyses theses parentheses axes hypotheses diagnoses -0 [] criteria phenomena -ata [t] miasmata Loans of Latin origin -us [s] stimulus nucleus radius corpus genus -0 [] formula antenna vertebra -um [m] datum stratum erratum -es,-ix [jks] index appendix matrix-i [ai] ->30 [r] -era [r] stimuli nuclei radii corpora genera -05 [i:] formulae (or regular - formulas) antennae vertebrae -a [] data strata errata -ices [jsi;z] indices appendices matrices [i:z] or indexes or appendixes or matzixes Other loan nouns Fr. -ean [ou] tableau bureau It.-o [ou] tempo-eaux [ouz] tableaux bureaux (or bureaus) -i [i] tempi (or tempos) As can be seen from the above list some loan nouns may have two plural forms: the English plural and the original foreign one: memorandummemoranda memorandums focusfoci focuses curriculumcurricula curriculums formulaformulae formulas cherubcheribum cherubs There is a tendency to use the regular English plural forms in fiction and colloquial English and the foreign plural in academic or learned language. Sometimes different plural forms have different meanings: index indexes (list of contents of books) indices (a mathematical term - ?>:070B5;L) genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (fabulous spirits guarding a place - 4CE8, 4><>2K5)  174. Plural in compound nouns 1. As a rule in compounds it is the second component that takes the plural form: housewives, tooth-brushes, boy-scouts, maid-servants. 2. Compounds in -ful have the plural ending at the end of the word: handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, (though spoonsful and mouthsful are also possible). 3. Compounds in which the first component is man or woman have plurals in both first and last components: men-servants, women-doctors, gentlemen-farmers. 4. Compounds ending in -man change it into -men in spelling. In pronunciation, however, there is no difference between the singular and plural forms, both having []: policeman [n] - policemen [n]. Such nouns as German, Roman, Norman are not compounds, and therefore they have regular plurals: Germans, Romans, Normans. 5. In compounds originating from a prepositional noun phrase where the preposition is a linking element only the first noun takes the plural form: editors-in-chief, mothers-in-law, commanders-in-chief, coats-of-mail, men-of-war (2>5==K5 :>@01;8). 6. In compounds with a conjunction as a linking element the plural is taken by the second noun: gin-and-tonics. 7. In compound nouns formed by a noun plus a preposition, or an adverb, or an adjective only the first element takes the plural: passers-by, lookers-on, courts-martial, attorneys-general. 8. When the compound is a substantivized phrase which does not contain a noun, the last element takes the plural ending s: forget-me-nots, breakdowns, stand-bys, grown-ups, close-ups, pick-ups (A;CG09=K5 7=0:><AB20), drop-outs (4575@B8@K), go-betweens (?>A@54=8:8). Invariable nouns Invariable nouns cannot change their number, some of them are always singular in meaning (linguistics, news), some denote plurality (cattle, police). 175. Singular invariable nouns. 1. Here belong all non-count nouns: a) material nouns - tea, sugar, gold, silver, oil, butter, sail. (As has been mentioned they may become count nouns with a specific meaning: cheeses - kinds of cheese, beers - portions of beer, as two glasses or cans of beer, two coffees, icecreams.) b) absrract nouns - music, anger, foolishness. 2. Proper nouns: The Thames, Henry. 3. Some nouns ending in -s: a) news - Here is the 10 oclock news; means - by this means (MB8<8 A@54AB20<8) gallows - They fixed up a gallows (28A5;8FC). b) some diseases - measles (:>@L), mumps (A28=:0), rickets (@0E8B), shingles (:@0A=CE0); However sometimes the usage varies: Mumps is/are a medical problem. c) some games - billiards, bowls (3>;LD), dominoes, draughts (H0H:8); But when used attributively no plural is used: a billiard table. d) some proper nouns - Algiers, Athens, Brussels, Flanders, Marseilles, Naples, Wales, the United Nations, th5 United States. 4. Nouns ending in ics: classics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, athletics, ceramics, ethics, gymnastics, politics, tactics. Nouns of this group are occasionally understood as plurals: Their tactics requires/reguire concentration of troops. Politics has/have always interested me. Plural invariable nouns 176. Plural invariable nouns comprise two types - marked and unmarked plurals. I. In the first type the form of the noun itself shows plurality. These nouns are rather numerous. Semantically they fall into several groups: a) names of tools or articles of dress consisting of two equal parts which are joined: bellows, binoculars, breeches, braces, flannels, glasses, pants, pincers, pliers, pyjamas, scales, scissors, shorts, spectacles, suspenders, tights, tongs, trousers, tweeters; These nouns can be made singular and countable by means of a pair of: a pair of trousers, a pair of scissors. Accordingly they are used with the verb-predicate in the singular (this pair of trousers is ...) b) miscellaneous nouns: annals, antics, archives, arms, ashes, the Commons (the House of Commons), contents, customs, customs-duty, customs-house, earnings, goods, goods train, greens, holidays, summer-holidays, manners, minutes (of the meeting), outskirts, quarters, headquarters, stairs, suds, surroundings, thanks, troops, wages, whereabouts, the Middle Ages; c) some proper nouns: the East Indies, the West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands, the Midlands, the Netherlands. II. In the second type of the plural invariable nouns the meaning of plurality is not marked in any form (hence the term  unmarked plural invariables ). They are usually treated as collective nouns (A>18@0B5;L=K5). English collective nouns denote only living beings (family, police, clergy, cattle, poultry, etc.) and have two categorical meanings: the first - plurality as indivisible whole and the second - discrete plurality, that is plurality denoting separate beings. In the latter case these nouns are called nouns of multitude. Thus, one and the same noun may be a collective noun proper and a noun of multitude. The difference in two categorical meanings is indicated by the number of the verb-predicate (singular in the first case and plural in the second), as well as by possessive and personal pronouns. The meaning of the predicate is also important: predicates denoting physiological processes or states, emotional or psychic reactions, states always imply separate beings involved into it. Compare the following examples: Collective nouns properNouns of multitude The family was large The cattle is in the mountains The crew on the ship was excellent. The crowd was enormous. The committee was unanimous.The family were fond of their house. The cattle are grasing there. The crew have taken their posts. The crowd were watching the scene spell-bound. The committee were divided in their opinion. Discrete plurality is also expressed by substantivized adjectives denoting people: the helpless, the needy, the poor, the sick, the weary, the rich. 177. Ways of showing partition. Many non-count nouns combine with a set of nouns showing some part of material or abstract notion. Here are some typical partitives for material and abstract nouns: a slice of bacon a slice of cake a piece a lumpof coala piece a loaf of breada piece a lumpof sugara piece a stick of chalka blade of grass a piece a bar of chocolate a piece a blockof ice a piece a sheetof papera piece a stripof land a grain of rice a piece an articleof furniturea pile a heap of rubbish a piece of evidence a fit of passion a piece of researcha piece a word of advicea piece an itemof information, news 178. In some cases there is no obvious logical reason for the assignment of various English nouns to the count or non-count class. In Russian and English the attribution of the corresponding nouns may be different. Here are some cases when the classes of nouns in English and Russian do not coincide: English non-count nouns Russian count nounsadvice (they gave us some valuable advice) news progress (they are making slow progress) research (do some research) knowledge (you have a fairly good knowledge of the subject)A>25B/A>25BK =>2>ABL/=>2>AB8 CA?5E/CA?5E8 8AA;54>20=85/8AA;54>20=8O, =0CG=0O @01>B0 7=0=85/7=0=8O  English singular invariable nounsRussian plural invariable nouns ink cream yeast money hair fruit applause chessG5@=8;0 A;82:8 4@>668 45=L38 2>;>AK D@C:BK 0?;>48A<5=BK H0E<0BK Note: Hair is a count noun in the sense of 2>;>A, 2>;>A>:. Fruit as a count noun means kinds of fruit: dried fruits keep long. English plural invariable nounsRussian singular invariable nouns sweepings clothes greens contents oddscop >45640 75;5=L (>2>I8) A>45@60=85 ?@58<CI5AB2> (A?>@B82=>5) The category of case 179. Case is a grammatical category which shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is expressed by the form of the noun. English nouns have two cases: the common case and the genitive case. However, not all English nouns possess the category of case; there are certain nouns, mainly nouns denoting inanimate objects, which cannot be used in the genitive case. The common case is unmarked, it has no inflexion (zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general. The genitive case is marked by the apostrophe s (s). 180. In writing there are two forms of the genitive: for most nouns it is s (mothers) and for nouns ending in -s and regular plural nouns only the apostrophe (mothers). In speech there are four ways of pronunciation of the genitive case. 1. [z] after vowels and voiced consonants: Negros, dogs; 2. [s] after voiceless consonants: students; 3. [Iz] after sibilants: princes, judges; 4. zero endings: girls, boys. The zero form is used: a) with regular plural nouns students, drivers, doctors; b) with Greek nouns in -s of more than one syllable: Socrates ['sokrati:z] wife, Xerxes ['z ksi: z] army, Euripides |ju'rjpjdi:z] plays. In many other names ending in the voiced sibilant [z] the normal spelling of the genitive case is with the apostrophe only (though sometimes 's occurs too): Burns (Burns s) poems, Dickens (Dickens s) novels. Names ending in sibilants other than [z] have the regular [jz] in the genitive: Marx s [sjz] ideas, Tess s [sjz] misfortunes. Irregular plural nouns forming their plural by vowel change also have the regular [z] in the genitive: Children s games, womens faces. Compound nouns have s joined to the final component: the editor-in-chiefs office, my mother-in-laws garden, a passer-bys comment. 181. A specific feature of the English genitive case is the so-called group genitive when s can be joined: 1) to a group of two coordinated nouns if such a group refers to a single idea (when two persons possess or are related to something they have in common): Mum and Dads room. John and Marys car. 2) to a more extensive phrase which may even contain a clause: the Duke of Norfolks sister, the secretary of states private room, the man I saw yesterdays son. 3) to a noun (pronoun) + a pronoun group: someone elses benefit. 4) to a group ending in a numeral: in an hour or twos time. 182. The main meaning of the genitive case is that of possession, hence the traditional term the possessive case. This general sense undergoes a number of modifications under the influence of the lexical meaning of both the noun in the genitive case and the noun it modifies. The main modifications of this meaning are: 1. The idea of belonging: Johns coat, Marys car. 2. Different kinds of relations, such as: a) relation of the whole to its parts: Johns leg, the cats tail; b) personal or social relations: Johns wife, Johns friend. Besides the genitive case retains some of its old meanings: subjective relations: Chekhovs observation = Chekhov observed; the doctors arrival =- the doctor arrived; authorship: Byrons poem, Shakespeares tragedy; objective relations: Caesars murder = Caesar was murdered; Jules arrest = Jule was arrested; measure: an hours trip, a miles distance. In some cases the form s completely loses the meaning of possession and comes to denote a quality, as in mans blood, womans work (serving in works canteen or a transport cafe, is generally regarded as womans work), his sly idiots smile - 848>BA:0O C;K1:0, you ve got angel s eyes -0=35;LA:85 3;07:8, this is a women s college - 65=A:89 :>;;546. The use of the genitive case and its equivalent of-phrase 183. The genitive case is used: 1. With nouns denoting persons and animals. John s idea, the swallows nest, the mares back. With other nouns (denoting inanimate objects or abstract notions) the of + noun phrase is used: the back of a train, the legs of a table. 2. With nouns denoting time and distance, such as minute, moment, hour, day, week, month, year, inch, foot, mile and substantivized adverbs: today, yesterday, tomorrow, etc. a moments delay an hours drive todays newspaper a weeks time a nights resta months absence a miles distance a few minutes silence yesterdays telephone conversation  With these nouns the of-phrase is either impossible, as in the first three examples, or if it is possible the two variants are not interchangeable. today s papers - A53>4=OH=85 3075BK the papers of today - 3075BK A53>4=OH=53> 4=O 3. With the names of countries and towns. Britain s national museums Canada s population London s ambulance services 4. With the names of newspapers and nouns denoting different kinds of organizations. The Guardian s analysis, the Tribune s role, the companys plans, the firms endeavours, the Coal Boards Offer, the governments policy, the organisations executive board, the Geographical Societys gold medal. 5. Often with the nouns world, nation, country, city, town: the worlds top guitarists, the nations wealth. 6. With the nouns ship, boat, car: the ships crew, the cars wheel. 7. With nouns denoting planets: sun, moon, earth: the suns rays, this earths life. 8. With some inanimate nouns in the following set expressions: to ones hearts content (desire), at deaths door, at arms length, out of harms way, a hairs breadth, a needles eye, at a stones throw, to move at a snails pace, at the waters edge. 184. The syntactical function of the genitive case is that of an attribute. It is always used as a premodifier of a noun and is sometimes called the dependent genitive. However there are some cases when the noun in the genitive case is not followed by the headword and then it stands for the whole noun phrase. This is the so-called absolute genitive. It is used: 1. To avoid repetition: Our house is better than Marys (than Marys house). 2. After the preposition of: an old friend of my mothers, that cousin of my husbands. 3. To denote shops such as the butchers, the bakers, the grocers, the chemists, or institutions, where the genitive is usually a saint's name: St Pauls (Cathedral), St Jamess (Palace), or places of residence: at Timothys, at Old Jolyons, at my uncles. There are also cases (though rare) when a noun is modified by two successive nouns in the genitive case. It is the so called double genitive, as in My mothers fathers people. The first in such structures has as a rule the meaning of possession (the father of my mother), while the second may either have the same meaning (the people of my father) or other meanings as in: the boy's half-hours run. Syntactical functions of the noun 185. A noun may be used in the function of almost any part of the sentence, although its most typical functions are those of the subject and the object. It may function as 1. Subject: The ship got under way. 2. Predicative: He was certainly the best hated man in the ship. 3. Object: I gave him a pound. Twelve dollars are enough for the man. 4. Objective predicative: I found him an excellent listener. 5. Attribute: A dog is a mans best friend. 6. Adverbial modifier (usually as part of a prepositional phrase): High above the city, on a tall column, stood the statue of the Happy Prince. THE ARTICLE 186. The article is a form word that serves as a noun determiner. It is one of the main means of conveying the idea of definiteness and indefiniteness. There are two articles in English: the definite article the [i:] and the indefinite article a [ei]. Definiteness suggests that the object presented by the following noun is individualized and singled out from all the other objects of the same kind, whereas indefiniteness means a more general reference to an object. Thus when saying The book is a historical novel or The boy has a dog or The telephone is out of order, the speaker treats the objects book, boy, telephone as specific objects, while saying a dog, a historical novel the speaker characterizes the objects in a more general way, pointing out what kind of novel the book is and what kind of pet animal the boy has. The notion of definiteness/indefiniteness determines the important role of the article in the process of communication. The definite article usually presents the notion as something already known, whereas the indefinite article introduces a new item of information. The presentation of objects as definite or indefinite, as already known or as new, depends on the speaker or the writer, who by using articles establishes mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener, the writer and the reader. Since the article is a noun determiner and the noun is the headword in a noun phrase, the syntactical role of the article consists in marking off a noun or a noun phrase as part of the sentence. The morphological value of the article lies in indicating the substantivization of other parts of speech, mainly adjectives or participles (see examples 1 and 2 below), also pronouns (examples 3 and 4), adverbs (example 5), numerals (example 6): 1. More nurses were required to tend the sick and the wounded. 2. Her hair was a bright brown. 3. It wasnt a he. 4. He is such a nothing. 5 . There is a Beyond. 6. She was only just fifty and looked a handsome thirty-five. Both articles have originated from notional parts of speech, whose influence may be traced in their meaning and use. The definite article developed from a demonstrative pronoun, which accounts for its meaning of definiteness. The demonstrative force remains in many phrases, such as at the time, of the kind, in its use before restrictive attributes, and in some situational uses. The indefinite article developed from the cardinal numeral one, The numerical meaning is evident in such phrases and sentences as at a time, in a moment, wait a minute, not a sound was heard. The pronunciation of the articles and the spelling of the indefinite article depend upon the initial sound of the following word. The indefinite article is spelled as a before consonant and as an before vowel sounds. When stressed it is pronounced respectively as [ej] or [n]. However, since the articles are usually unstressed, the pronunciation of the indefinite article is generally reduced to the neutral vowel [] before consonants, and to [n] before vowel sounds, which depends entirely on the pronunciation and not the spelling of the following word, as can be seen in the table below.  The definite article is pronounced as [i:] when stressed. When unstressed, it is pronounced as [] before consonants and [j] before vowels: [][j]the dog the house the European the unit the manuscriptthe apple the hour the x-ray the uncle the MP Since the article is the opening element of a noun phrase, it is placed before the noun it refers to or before all the other noun premodifiers. The exceptions to this rule are as follows: a) the definite article may be preceded by the predeterminers alt and both: Are you going to cook all the cakes yourself? Both the answers were good. b) the indefinite article may be preceded by the predeterminers what, such, quite: What a sight I am in this hat! You were such a queen, and I was such a nothing! You are quite a scholar. A) the indefinite article is placed after adjectives preceded by the adverbs too, as, so: That was too difficult a problem for the child to solve. It s as good an excuse as any for breaking it up. Ive never seen so miserable a creature as Jane was at the moment. The use of the indefinite article The main functions of the indefinite article are classifying, generic and numerical. 187. In its classifying function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind. We saw a speck in the distance. It was a ship. I am a school teacher. Somewhere a telephone began to ring. The door opened and a man entered. Janet lived alone in a small shabby house. He was a man I would be glad to spend half my time in hell with. The noun preceded by the classifying indefinite article may be accompanied by pre- or postmodifying attributes. The indefinite article is used so long as the reference to the class is preserved, as can be seen from the examples below. Ive read a novel. It is a very interesting novel. It is a novel by a modem writer. It is a teenager novel about American boys. It is an exciting novel which is very suitable for staging. But: It is the novel our teacher mentioned at the last lesson. Though mostly used with counts the indefinite article may be used in the classifying function with non-counts, unique and proper nouns.* * For details see 192, 198, 201. The moon rose early.It was a very pale siver moon. 188. In its generic function the indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the noun is spoken of as a representative of the class, and therefore what is said about the thing, animal, person, or notion mentioned, refers to any object of the same kind, as in: An oblong has four sides, a triangle has three sides. A tram runs on rails, a bus does not. A horse has four legs. A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines. A library is a collection of books. The noun preceded by the generic indefinite article may be modified by an attribute which restricts the class represented by the object mentioned or narrows the scope of reference, but does not individualize it. A complex sentence has two or more clauses. A man who looks after the books in a library is called a librarian. The indefinite article in its generic function is often used in proverbs and sentences expressing a general truth. A friend in need is a friend indeed. An elephant never forgets. As a man sows, so he shall mow. With the nouns in the plural in this case no article is used. It should be noted that the generic function of the indefinite article, though akin to the classifying function, is different not only in its meaning, but also in its role in the process of communication. In the majority of cases a noun with the indefinite article in its generic function is the starting point of the utterance, whereas a noun with the indefinite article in its classifying function used as subject or predicative presents a new item of information, which is the most important part of the utterance. 189. In its numerical function the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral one. The Indian summer returned for a day. Of course I wont say a word. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A stitch in time saves nine. The numerical function of the indefinite article is evident with nouns denoting units of measure (time, distance, length, weight, etc.): 60 miles an hour, ten shillings a yard. The wireless had become a ton weight. We walked a mile or two. The function of the indefinite article is also numerical in noun phrases with an ordinal numeral as premodifier, where the article suggests the meaning one more, another: In this final chapter, we come to a third way in which one may view these parts of the sentence. The indefinite article in its numerical function may signal a change in the meaning of a non-count making it a count. Thus an ice-cream, a coffee, a tea, a beer, a whisky, etc. mean a portion of, a glass of, a pint of, etc.: David has ordered a second whisky. The three main functions of the indefinite article are interrelated, one of them predominating in the context. Thus in the sentence Ive bought a new dictionary the function of the article is classifying. The numerical idea is implied, but it is not conspicuous enough. If the speaker is interested in number he must say: Ive bought one dictionary or I want only one dictionary. On the other hand when the article is used in its numerical sense, the classifying function coexists with the numerical function. Thus in the proverb An apple a day keeps the doctor away the idea of number (one apple, one day) goes together with the idea of class (a kind of fruit, a unit of time), In the generic function the ideas of oneness and class are combined, but there is no reference to a specific existing thing, person or notion. If we say A triangle has three sides we mean one triangle and a certain class of geometrical figures, but we do not refer the figure drawn on the blackboard to the class mentioned. To express the latter idea we must say The figure is a triangle. The same applies to the following sentences: I wanted to be a doctor where we deal with a classifying meaning of the article, but A doctor is an intelligent man - with generic. 190. There are a number of set expressions with the indefinite article. In most of them the main functions of the indefinite article can be seen. at a time at a glance as a result (of) as a wholeto be (to feel) at a loss to have a mind (to do something) to have a good time to have a headache (a toothache, a sore throat) in a good (evil) hour in a hurry (but: in haste) in a fury in a low voice in a whisper It is a pity It is a pleasure It is a shame What a shame! What a pity! at a distance of... (but: in the distance) at a depth (but: in the depth) at a speed of...They were much of a size Birds of a feather flock together. many a time (not once, on many occasions) many a man (not one) The use of the definite article 191. The definite article implies that the speaker or the writer presents a person, a thing or an abstract notion as known to the listener or the reader, either from his general knowledge, or from the situation, or from the context. Hence, the two main functions of the definite article are specifying and generic. 192. The definite article in its specifying function serves to single out an object or a group of objects from all the other objects (things, persons, animals, abstract notions) of the same kind. The specification is carried out by means of (1) a restrictive attribute, of (2) the preceding context, (3) the situation or (4) the meaning of the noun. 1) A restrictive attribute is most useful in singling out or individualizing an object (such attributes are also called specifying or limiting). It may be expressed by a single word, a prepositional phrase, a participial phrase, or by a clause, all functioning as postmodifiers. Somebody moved in the room above. Im convinced Davis is the man we are looking for (the very man). The students in the next room are taking an examination. That was the end of my first journey into the enchantment of the past. The man standing by the window is my uncle. I said nothing to Mr Smith. I think he was already rehearsing the story he would fell to Mrs Smith. There are also postmodifying attributes which refer the object they modify to a class of similar objects, and in this case they require the indefinite article before the modified noun. A letter written in pencil is difficult to read. A letter which is written in pencil is difficult to read. In like fashion premodifying attributes, especially expressed by adjectives, have either descriptive force in which case they do not influence the use of articles, or a restrictive force due to their meaning. Those are the limiting adjectives very, right, left, wrong, only, one, opposite, last, next (following), the pronominal adjective same, ordinal numerals. Their meaning specifies the object well enough to exclude a possibility of choice or change within a class. We got into the wrong train. Are we on the right road? He is the only man for this position. Morning light ... touched the opposite seat. Thats the great Rita. The one and only Rita. My first job was not a success. But the second job was a sensational success. Apparent exceptions to the rule are caused by a certain shift in the meaning of premodifiers, which may acquire a new qualitative tinge. Thus an only child means a child who has no brothers or sisters, a first impression or a first attempt has its own qualitative peculiarities, a last look is a farewell look, a second, a third, a tenth means one more, another. In such cases the classifying force of the article prevails. See the examples below, the last of which also suggests reference to a class, namely to the class of books in their first edition. I havent got four brothers. Im an only son. Alec turned up as if for a last look at the retreating figure. It was a good first impression. What made him spot Boot? Its a sixth sense He picked up a first edition of The Torrents of Spring. Note: There is no article if the numeral is part of a proper name: Fifth Avenue, Sixty-Sixth Street. 2) An object or a group of objects may be specified by reference to file preceding context (backward reference). This use of the definite article is qualified as anaphoric. The noun with the definite article may be a mere repetition of the noun mentioned before (see examples a) and b) below); it may be referred to the words or statement just mentioned (ex. c, d), or may be a final statement prompted by the context (e): a) My wife always had a passion for owls. The passions grown since our marriage. b) Three little kittens lost their mittens ... The three little kittens they found their mittens. c) My wife has left me. Dirk could hardly get the words out. d) Dainty spoke aloud. The habit was certainly growing. e) My daughters getting married at the week-end, but I don't think I shall go. You dont like the man? 3) One of the most usual ways of singling out an object or a group of objects is situational specification. Though the object is mentioned for the first time, no attribute or context is necessary for the speaker (or the writer) to point it out and for the listener (or the reader) to understand what object is meant. After visiting a theatre we may say: I liked the acting and I enjoyed the music too. After a flower exhibition: The flowers were splendid. In many everyday situations: Go to the kitchen. Open the door. Pass the butter. Keep off the grass. When we say Lets go to the river, depending on the place we live in, it may be the Neva, the Thames, the Amazon, etc. With reference to a certain school we may say: The bell rang and the teacher came in, or Miss , Smith came in. If the situational reference is not clear enough to the listener, the speaker should employ another specifier as in the following: Hilary, would you mind if we fixed the day? What day? The day for me and Crystal to get married. 4) The definite article in its specifying function is used with unique objects or notions. They are the sun, the moon, the earth, the sea, the world, the universe, the horizon, the equator, the south, the north, the west, the east. The sun sank below the horizon. The sky had cleared... The moon is the heavenly body that moves round the earth. He sailed round the world. The use of the definite article with nouns denoting unique objects is similar to the situational use, only unique objects suggest situations on a larger scale. Nouns denoting unique objects are also similar to proper nouns, especially to those originated from common nouns, such as the Tower, the Hermitage, the British Museum. Though in the majority of cases proper nouns are used without an article, thanks to their origin, various historical processes and traditional usage, there are a number of proper nouns which are preceded by the definite article (for more examples see the list in 194). Nouns denoting unique objects may be preceded by the indefinite article in its classifying function when some aspect or phase of the object is meant or the word is used figuratively. Its a high sky tonight, big and pale. The sun shone in an unclouded sky. Night had fallen and I was guided by a full moon. She in turn had discovered in Cal Finley a world of which she had never dreamed before. It has always been a dream of her life. 193. The definite article in its generic function refers the following noun to the whole class of objects of the same kind. The lion is the king of the animals. The trout - oh the trout hes the real king of fish. Only the poet or the saint can water an asphalt pavement in the confident anticipations that lilies will reward his labour. Since 1925 Mr Warren has made an outstanding contribution to American letters in the fields of education, poetry, criticism, and the novel. The generic article suggests a very high degree of abstraction in a count noun, the next stage of abstraction being achieved by the absence of the articles, as with the words man and woman when used in a generic meaning. Woman is physically weaker than man. This was more than man can be expected to bear. Observe the difference between the generic use of the word man without an article (the class as a whole) and the generic use of the same word with the indefinite article (a representative of the class) in this quotation: Man is not made for defeat. A man can be destroyed, but not defeated. In many cases either the generic definite or the generic indefinite article may be used. The generic definite article expresses the idea of the whole class, whereas the indefinite article emphasises the idea of any individuals belonging to the class, e.g. The horse is a domestic animal. A horse is a domestic animal. The generic indefinite article is often preferable when a detailed description follows: A person who prepares somebody elses writings for a publisher is called the editor. A crane is a large bird with a long neck and beak. There are certain contexts, however, where the use of the generic indefinite article is logically impossible, as in: The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct. The lion is the king of the animals. The atom was known to the ancient Greeks. Singular nouns preceded by the generic definite or the generic indefinite article correspond to plural nouns with no article. The tiger lives in the jungle.Tigers live in the jungle. The generic use of the definite article occurs with nouns denoting social classes (both singular and plural forms), for example: the proletariat, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, the gentry, the workers, the public, the peasants, the intelligentsia. The same applies to people belonging to some school or movement in literature or art, for example: the romanticists, the impressionists. The use of the definite article before substantivized adjectives in their collective or abstract meaning is also generic: the poor =- all who are poor, the strong = all who are strong, the obvious = all that is obvious, the beautiful = all who are beautiful or all that is beautiful, beauty: Take Charley, for example. He has associated with the learned, the gentle, the literate and the reasonable both in France and America. Three things will never be believed - the true, the probable and the logical. 194. Set expressions with the definite article: the other day the day after tomorrow by the dozen (the score, the hundred) by the hour in the morning in (during) the night in the afternoon in the evening in (the) summer in (the) springtime in the singular in the plural in the past, in the present in the future (but: in future = from this time on) on the whole out of the question to pass the timeall the same just the same by the by by the way to take (seize) smb by the shoulder (by the arm) to pull smb by the hair to kiss smb on the cheek (on the forehead, etc.) to be wounded in the knee (in the arm, etc.) to keep the house (but: to keep house) to play the piano (the guitar, etc.) to tell the truth to tell the time  195. List of proper nouns regularly used with the definite article. I. Astronomical names. The Milky Way, the Great Bear, the Little (Lesser) Bear. II. Geographical names. 1. The North Pole, the South Pole, the Arctic, etc. 2. Mountain ranges: the Alps, the Pennines, the Urals. But single mounts take no article. 3. Rivers: the Thames, the Hudson, the Amazon, the Rein, the Nile, the Neva, the Danube, etc. 4. Seas and oceans: the North Sea, the Red Sea, the Black Sea, the Baltic (Sea), the Arctic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Pacific (Ocean), etc. 5. Canals: the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, etc.; also the English Channel. 6. Some countries, areas, provinces: the USA (the United States of America), the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Ukraine, the Crimea, the Caucasus. 7. Deserts: the Sahara (Desert), the Gobi (Desert), the Karakum (Desert). 8. Parts of towns: the West End, the East End, the Soho, the City (of London), the Bronx (in New York). 9. The de facto capital of the Netherlands: the Hague. III. Names of public institutions (museums, theatres, hotels, restaurants), unique buildings and monuments: the Tate (Gallery), the National Gallery, the Metropolitan Museum (Opera), the British Museum, the Louvre, the Hermitage, the Prado, the Grand (Hotel), the Savoy,the Kremlin, the White House, the Bronze Horseman, the Sphinx. IV. Names of vessels: the Discovery, the Titanic, the Queen Elisabeth, the Dolores, etc. V. Names of most newspapers (in English-speaking countries): the Times, the Washington Post, the Canadian Tribune, etc. Absence of the article 196. The absence of any article, which is sometimes referred to as the zero article, is as meaningful as their actual use. It is regularly observed with count nouns in the plural, with non-counts used in a general sense, with proper nouns. 197. The indefinite article has no plural form and thus it cannot be used with nouns in the plural in any of its functions. The plural form without an article corresponds to the classifying and generic uses of the indefinite article and sometimes to the generic use of the definite article. Jane is a student. A dog barks. A man who has nothing to say has no words. The tiger lives in the jungle.Jane and Mary are students. Dogs bark. Men who have nothing to say have no words. Tigers live in the jungle. If the idea of number is retained, an indefinite pronoun (some, any, no), adjectives (several, a lot of, many), or a cardinal numeral accompanies the plural noun. Have you a record teaching English pronunciation? There grew a cherry-tree once.Have you any records teaching English pronunciation? They have some (several, many, ten) records of the kind. There grew three (some, a lot of) cherry-trees once. 198. Non-count nouns, abstract or material, when used in a general sense, are not preceded by any article, as in: Time will show who is right. He has such huge pride. She said with astonishment, Where are you, Maurice? We walked forward in silence. They greeted him without enthusiasm. Premodifiers of abstract non-count nouns do not influence the use of articles, they only restrict the meaning of the noun, as in: history - English history, medieval English history; music - folk music, pop music, classical music; art - modern art, abstract art; weather - nasty weather, fine weather; advice - valuable advice. He doesnt love abstract art. The same refers to material non-counts beautiful silk, Venetian glass, stained glass. However the indefinite article is used with both kinds of noun if the classifying idea predominates (An English grammar - a kind of it, a soil of it); with words denoting feeling the indefinite article suggests a manifestation of that feeling, with nouns of material a particular kind of the substance mentioned. In contexts of the kind non-counts are usually accompanied by descriptive attributes. That, sir, was a profound knowledge of man. He always had a love for the concrete. I cant remember a time when I wasnt painting with my father standing beside me. I was no good at football, but does it make an unhappy boyhood? It is incredible to me that there should be an after life. She put down the mirror with a feeling of hopelessness. In nouns which may function as both counts and non-counts the absence of the article indicates a non-count with general meaning, whereas the indefinite article shows that it is a count noun, abstract or concrete. Compare the meanings in such pairs of nouns as: Language is a means of communication. It is always interesting to study a foreign language. Light is necessary for life. They saw a light in the distance. Absence of the article before an originally count noun may suggest a shift in its meaning. Thus in to teach piano (violin) the noun piano means a subject to be taught, just as history, literature, etc., whereas in to play the piano the noun piano denotes a musical instrument with the article in its generic function. In such expressions as to go to school, to be at school the adverbial meaning predominates and the noun loses its nominal quality. If partition or indefinite amount is meant, it is expressed by an indefinite pronoun (some, any) or a partitive noun (a piece, an item, a bit). With material nouns partitive meaning is also expressed with the help of nouns denoting measure or amount (a cup of tea, a glass of milk, a pint of beer, a slice of bread, a loaf of bread, a spoonful of medicine, a sack of coal, etc.). All non-counts can be preceded by the definite article in its specifying function. Thus we say the art of the nineteenth century, the music of the Renaissance, the history of England, (but: English history) the history of the Middle Ages, and also: Whats the weather like today? How did you like the music? Note the difference between English (French, Spanish) literature and the English (French, Spanish) language. Here literature is a non-count, whereas the word language is used as a count noun. The adjectives operate as specifiers restricting the abstract notion of language to one particular language. Compare also the use of in darkness, in the darkness. The first suggests the state of darkness as such, the second is situationally or contextually determined, as in these two examples: The yard and the lane outside it were in darkness. In the darkness he could discern the figure of the watchman. 199. Proper names point out individual objects. Their individualizing meaning makes the use of an article unnecessary. All proper names of living beings are situationally specified (when we say Tom, Mary, Mrs Brown, Mr Wilson, etc.), for there are hundreds if not thousands of people bearing the same name. When a proper name is preceded by a modifier no article is used in case the latter denotes a title, relationship, or rank, or if the proper name is accompanied by adjectives which sometimes form part of it: simple Simon, lucky Jim, old Jolyon, young Jolyon, poor Smith, Miss Dodson, Mister Brown, Colonel Pickering, Queen Elisabeth, Professor Jones, President Kennedy, Doctor Manson. When modified by other adjectives, not commonly used, proper names may take the definite article. Use of the definite article before proper names 200. The definite article is necessary: 1. When additional specification is needed. This is realized with a restricting attribute, usually formed as an of-phrase or a clause, or with the definite article alone, or a premodifier operating as one: Gloria at twenty-six was still the Gloria of twenty. Did Bait understand the England of today? Thats not the George Lamb I knew. You are the Mr Murdstone who married the widow of my late nephew? said my aunt. Why, shes Sue Courtenay, Gladys informed her uncle impressively. The Sue Courtenay! Why, dont you know her? Capn Kit, thats my name. What? The Captain Kit? Ocourse Ive heard of him. 2. When the specifying premodifier denotes a profession or points out some peculiar feature or temporary state (often expressed by a participle): the playwright Pinter, the painter Reynolds, the electrician Smith, the unsophisticated Kitty, the susceptible Mr Snodgrass, the puzzled Henry, the calculating Becky, the brilliant George Osborne, the offended Soames. 3. Before a group of objects or persons bearing the same name and forming one whole: The Pennines, the Alps, the Rockies, the Urals - a group of mountains, a mountain range; the British Isles, the Philippines, the Canaries, the Hebrides, the Shetlands - a group of islands, an archipelago; the Browns, theTullivers - a family, a clan, as in: the Dobsons were a very respectable family indeed. The absence of the article before a plural proper name suggests a mere plurality, as in: There are a lot of Wilsons, Browns and Smiths in England. 4. Before proper nouns formed by means of substantivized adjectives: the Pacific (ocean), the Atlantic (ocean), the Mediterranean (Sea), the Argentine (Republic), but Argentina (because it is a proper name). 5. Before nicknames: the Gadfly, the Scout. Use of the indefinite article before proper names 201. The indefinite article is necessary: 1. When the person mentioned belongs to the family bearing the same name: Mrs Tulliver had been a Miss Dodson... No daughter of the house could be indifferent of having been born a Dodson, rather than a Gibson or a Watson. 2. When nothing is known about the person mentioned but the name. This usage corresponds to the Russian word =5:89. There s a young American girl staying at the hotel. She s a Miss Render. 3. When an originally proper name comes to be used as a common noun (usually as a result of metonymy or metaphor), as in: This man doesn t know a Rubens from a Rembrandt (pictures of these painters). There is in Garys work the naturalness and zest of a Defoe, the generosity of a Fielding (like that of Defoe, like that of Fielding). Everybody isnt a Mary Pickford (a film star like Mary Pickfbrd). He was a Crusoe with no need to look for footprints in the sand (a man like Crusoe). Have a cigar. If it is a real Havana. 4. When some phase, aspect, or state is meant, whether it refers to a living being or a geographical place: John was inside, a very different John from the lad he had known seven years ago. And now here was Gullivers girl Barbara, that mournful-eyed waif from an unhappy France. So at night Castle dreamt of a South Africa reconstructed with hatred. (Compare with the same use of the indefinite article before unique and non-count nouns.) 202. Absence of the articles in set expressions at dinner (breakfast, etc.) at first notice at first sight at night at table at warin search of in spite of by airmail by letter by telegram by air by car by land by plane by sea by ship (boat) by train by tram by tube by waterout of date out of order out of place out of sight arm in arm day after day day by day hand in hand night after night night by night a kind of a sort ofplace, book, task, etc. by accident by chance by mistake by name by sighton account of on condition that to be in to go to bedfrom beginning to end from day to day from east to west from head to foot from morning to (till) night from side to side in debt in demand in secret in sight in time to be at to go to to come to to come from to leave  school, college, (the) universityto be at to leave to take to  hospitalto be at to go to seain addition to in (on) behalf of in care of in case of in charge of in reference to to be in to go to  churchto be at to put to  prisonto be in to be out of to go to  townto ask (for) permission to catch (lose) sight of to give offence (permission) to give way to to keep house (to do housework) to keep timeto lose touch with to lose track of to make fun of to make use of to pay attention to to set fire to to shake hands with to take care of to take notice of In these set expressions nouns combine with prepositions or verbs and acquire a new shade of meaning, expressing an adverbial relation, a state or a process. Concrete count nouns lose their nominal meaning. Thus He is in bed may mean He is ill, or He is asleep, or He is not up. But we say: There were no chairs enough and we sat on the bed. My brother goes to school (college) means He learns there. However, if we mean the building or the institution, we use an article according to the general rules, as in: We shall meet at the school. The school isn't far from our home. Ours is a very good school. Parents are regularly invited to the school. The noun town without an article means the nearest big centre of population as contrasted to the country or a smaller town, it may also denote the central part of a big town, as opposed to its suburbs. To be at sea may mean "far away from the land" or (figuratively) "to feel puzzled"; to go to sea is "to become a sailor". But we say: The swimmer jumped into the sea. We lived near the sea, etc. No article is used as a rule when two notions, very closely related, are mentioned, as in: They looked like mother and daughter. We are no longer boy and girl. Its no use interfering into a quarrel between husband and wife. 203. Notes on the use of nouns denoting time and meals. Nouns denoting time are treated as abstract nouns bordering on proper names. No article is used with reference to parts of the day or of the year, light or darkness, as in: Evening came. Night fell. Day broke. Well wait till night. Twilight is the faint light just before sunset and just after sunrise. Winter set in. If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? It was early morning (late afternoon, Friday morning, Saturday night, etc.). It was early spring (late autumn, etc.). They met at noon (at sunset, at midnight). However articles may occur with such words according to the common usage of the articles in their (a) specifying, (b) generic, (c) classifying or (d) numerical functions. a) The evening was calm. The winter is severe this year. The twilight was sad and cloudy. We stayed at my aunts for the night. (B>9 =>GLN, 2 BC =>GL) We watched the sunrise from the balcony. The winter of 1978 was severe. It happened on the morning of April 12th. b) Evening is the latest part of the day. Tell me the four seasons of the year! c) It was a wonderful day (a hot summer, a warm morning, a gloomy afternoon, a glorious sunrise, etc.). That was a restless night. d) Ill ring you up in a day or two. When names of meals denote simply an occasion or process of taking food, they are used without an article in phrases and patterns, such as: to have (take, serve, cook) dinner, breakfast, lunch, supper; to go to (to be at) dinner, lunch, etc.; Lunch is at two p.m. Dinner is ready (served, laid). What have you bought for lunch (dinner, supper) What shall we have for supper (dinner)? An article is used mainly when a formal meal is meant or when the notion referred to is specified or classified. They gave a dinner (luncheon, supper) in honour of the ambassador (a kind of reception) The dinner you cooked was beyond all expectations! It was a marvellous dinner. Note on the use of next and last as noun premodifiers 204. Nouns with these premodifiers are not preceded by any articles when counting from the moment of speaking, as in; Well speak about it next time (next Friday, next month, next spring, next year): We spoke about it last time (last Friday, last month, etc.). The definite article occurs when the situation is viewed from some moment in the past or in the future and when the noun is modified by a specifying attribute or attributive clause. We spent (or: well spend) a week in the Crimea, and the next two weeks in the Caucasus. The last time I saw Mary she looked a picture of health. We shall resume our talk the next time I see you. Omission of the articles 205. The omission of an article differs from the absence of an article in that it is stylistically or traditionally determined. It occurs in cases where economy of expression is required and is often accompanied by other ellipses, such as omission of prepositions, auxiliaries, etc. 1. In newspaper headlines: Girl saw Flame, CTV is winning Fireside Battle. (Cp. the text of the newspaper report that follows the headline: Commercial television is winning the battle of the fireside.) 2. In telegrams: Attending cytological congress Rome will stop few days on way love John. 3. In newspaper announcements: Anna Linden, daughter of a Manchester engineer, made her debut... 4. In stage directions: At rise of curtain... goes to telephone; stands at door. 5. In reference entries or notes: See table Taxonomic Classification on following page. Hellman, Lilian, American dramatist, author of a succession of dramas ... Use of the articles with nouns in some syntactical functions 206. 1. A noun in the subject position is usually preceded by the definite article in its specifying function, or by either of the articles in their generic function. In these cases the noun denotes some notion forming the starting point of the utterance and therefore is presented as known to both the speaker and the addressee. The way was long. The wind was cold. The minstrel was infirm and old. The indefinite article in its classifying function occurs to express the idea of novelty or unexpectedness, no matter what the position of the subject is: On the opposite side of the landing a girl was standing. A girl was standing on the opposite side of the landing. Such sentences are translated into Russian with inverted word order: 0 4@C3>9 AB>@>=5 ?;>I04:8 AB>O;0 452CH:0. A similar use of the indefinite article occurs in sentences with the existential construction There is (comes, appears, etc.), as in: There is an exception to the rule. 2. When used as a predicative the noun is usually preceded by the indefinite article in its classifying function. The position of the predicative is most suitable for the manifestation of the classifying function and for giving some new information: This is a house. George is a telephone engineer. The definite article before a noun in this position suggests the identity of the object expressed by the predicative noun with that expressed by the subject: This is the house that Jack built.  He is the telephone engineer (the one we have sent for).  The absence of the article before predicative count nouns indicates: a) that the noun has lost its original meaning and suggests some social position, post or title: Mrs Mantoffle was president of all sorts of societies and committees. With this knowledge he can be king. He was on the programme as assistant stage Manager. J. F. Kennedy was elected President in I960. b) that the idea of quality or state predominates over the idea of thingness (usually when the noun is preceded by more or followed by enough). Fool, fool that she was to get into such a state. But youll be man enough to tell me the truth. Randal was in the end more artist than scientist. 3. With the noun functioning as objects any article can be used depending on how the speaker formulates his thought; the indefinite article is preferable after verbs of possession and obligatory in verb-object phrases denoting a single action such as to have a smoke, to give a look, etc. 4. The use of the articles with nouns in the function of an adverbial modifier depends partly on the type of adverbial modifier. In adverbial modifiers of place the definite article is used in its specifying function to identify the exact place: Jane is in the garden. The indefinite article in its classifying function is preferable when the attention is focused on a description of the place rather than on its identification, as in: Crystal lived alone in a small shabby house. In adverbial modifiers of comparison the indefinite article is preferably used in its classifying function with the generic tinge since comparison is drawn with a representative of the class: e.g. I can read you like a book. It is used also in phraseological combinations as strong as a lion, as hard as a nail, as meek as a mouse, etc. 5. In attributes the indefinite article is used to emphasize the importance and novelty of the notion mentioned. Therefore we find the indefinite article in such phrases as the son of a teacher, the daughter of a doctor, or a doctor's daughter, it may be paraphrased as Her father is a doctor. She is the daughter of the doctor uggests reference to a definite person known from the situation equal to our doctor, the doctor here. 6. In apposition either of the articles can be used, depending on whether the noun in apposition serves to classify or to identify the notion expressed by the noun: I've got acquainted with Mr Smith, an architect. We've got acquainted with Mr Smith, the architect. There is a substantial difference in the communicative value of the apposition depending on the use of the articles. The indefinite article implies that the listener (reader) does not know anything about the person or thing denoted by the head-noun and requires some new knowledge about it. Here the indefinite article has a classifying function: Have you ever heard of 'Caesar's Wife', a play by Maugham? Paul Long, a neighbour of yours, will be visiting us this evening. The definite article implies that the listener (reader) is supposed to be familiar with the person or thing mentioned from his general knowledge or the situation I want to speak to Mr Smith, the electrician. "Hamlet", the tragedy by Shakespeare, has been screened many a time. Note a restrictive appositions in noun phrases of the kind: the (famous) novelist Gr. Greene, the novel "The Heart of the Matter", the number ten (F8D@0 45AOBL) (but: page number 10), the noun "story" the letter "e". THE ADJECTIVE Semantic characteristics 207. According to their way of nomination adjectives fall into two groups - qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote properties of a substance directly (great, cold, beautiful, etc.). Relative adjectives describe properties of a substance through relation to materials (woollen, wooden, feathery, leathern, flaxen), to place (Northern, European, Bulgarian, Italian), to time (daily, monthly, weekly, yearly), to some action (defensive, rotatory, preparatory), or to relationship (fatherly, friendly). Qualitative adjectives in their turn may be differentiated according to their meaning into descriptive, denoting a quality in a broad sense (wonderful, light, cold, etc.) and limiting, denoting a specific category, a part of a whole, a sequence of order, a number (the previous page, an equestrian statue, medical aid, the left hand). Limiting adjectives single out the object or substance, impart a concrete or unique meaning to it, specify it, and therefore can seldom be replaced by other adjectives of similar meaning. Among limiting adjectives there is a group of intensifiers, which often form a phraseological unit with their head-word, for example: an obvious failure, a definite loss, a sure sign, a complete fool, absolute nonsense, plain nonsense, the absolute limit. Relative adjectives are also limiting in their meaning. Many adjectives may function either as descriptive or limiting, depending on the head-word and the context. Thus a little finger may denote either a small finger or the last finger of a hand. In the first case little is descriptive, in the second it is limiting. Likewise musical in a musical voice is descriptive, while it is limiting in a musical instrument. Adjectives also differ as to their function. Some of them are used only attributively and cannot be used as p r e d i A a t i v e s (a top boy in the class, but not *the boy was top): some are used only as predicatives and never as attrubutes (He is well again, but not *The well boy). The change in the position and, accordingly, of the syntactic status of the adjective may also result in the change in the meaning of the adjective. Thus in a fast train the adjective is limiting and denotes a specific kind of train (A:>@K9 ?>574), whereas in the train was fast the adjective is descriptive, as it describes the way the train moved (?>574 H5; =0 1>;LH>9 A:>@>AB8). Morphological composition 208. According to their morphological composition adjectives can be subdivided into simple, derived and compound. In the case of simple adjectives such as kind, new, fresh, we cannot always tell whether a word is an adjective by looking at it in isolation, as the form does not always indicate its status. Derived adjectives are recognizable morphologically. They consist of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes - suffixes or prefixes. There are the following adjective-forming suffixes: -able -al -ary -ed -en -que -fold -ful -ic -id -ish -ive -less -like -ly -most -ory -ous -some -yunderstandable musical, governmental documentary beaded, barbed wooden, silken, shrunken picturesque twofold, manifold careful, sinful pessimistic, atomic torpid, morbid feverish, bluish effective, distinctive careless, spotless manlike, warlike kindly, weekly, homely uttermost observatory glorious lonesome, troublesome handy, messy Some adjectives are former participles and therefore retain participial suffixes: charming, interesting, cunning, daring. The suffixes -ly, -ed, -ful, -ary, -al, -y are not confined to adjectives only. Thus, many adverbs are derived from adjectives hy means of the suffix -ly (strongly, bitterly, quickly). Most of the verbs form their past tense and participle II with -ed. There are many nouns with the suffixes -al (festival, scandal, criminal), -ary (boundary, missionary), -ful (mouthful, handful), -y (sonny, doggy), etc. Compound adjectives consist of at least two stems. They may be of several patterns: a) consisting of a noun + an adjective: colour-blind, grass-green; b) consisting of an adjective + an adjective: deaf-mute; c) consisting of an adverb + a participle: well-known, newly-repaired, much-praised; d) Consisting of a noun/pronoun + a verbal: all-seeing, heart-breaking, high-born, high-flown, man-made; e) consisting of an adjective/adverb + a noun + the suffix -ed: blue-eyed, long-legged, fair-haired, down-hearted. Morphological characteristics 209. Adjectives in English do not take any endings to express agreement with the head-word. The only pattern of morphological change is that of degrees of comparison, which is possible only for descriptive qualitative adjectives the meaning of which is compatible with the idea of gradation of quality. There are three grades of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative. The superlative is generally used with the definite article. Ways of formation may be synthetic, analytic, and suppletive (irregular). The synthetic way is by adding the inflection -er, -est, as fine -finer - finest. This means is found with monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives in which the stress falls on the last syllable: 1) full - fuller - fullest polite profound complete- politer - profounder - completer- politest - profoundest - completest 2) in which the second syllable is the syllabic [1]: able noble- abler - nobler- ablest - noblest 3) with adjectives in -er, -y, -some, -ow:, tender happy handsome narrow- tenderer - happier - handsomer - narrower- tenderest - happiest - handsomest - narrowest  Synthetic inflection, however, is often found in other disyllabic adjectives: You are the horridest man I have ever seen. Polysyllabic adjectives form their degrees of comparison analytically, by means of more and most: difficult - more difficult - most difficult curious - more curious - most curious Note 1: Even monosyllabic adjectives used in postposition or predicatively have a greater tendency towards analytic forms of comparison than when used attributively. Compare: He is a man more clever th0? you. He is a cleverer man. The superlative is sometimes used without the when the aqjective denotes a very high degree of quality and no comparison with other objects is implied. The path is steepest here. She is happiest at home. Note 2: This morphological pattern (long - longer - longest) is not confined to adjectives, there are also a number of adverbs which may have the same endings, i.e. soon - sooner - soonest, hard - harder - hardest. Superlatives are often used alone before an of-phrase: the best of friends, the youngest of the family. Several adjectives form their degrees of comparison by means of (suppletive forms) irregularly: good/well bad little many- better - worse - less - more- best - worst - least - most farfarther - farthest (with reference to distance) further - furthest (with reference to distance, abstract notions and in figurative use) oldolder - oldest (with reference to age) elder - eldest (with reference to the sequence of brothers and sisters) Adjectival compounds can be inflected in two ways, either the first element is inflected (if it is an adjective or adverb), or comparison is with more and most, for example: well-known dull-witted kind-hearted- better-known - more dull-witted - more kind-hearted- best-known - most dull-witted - most kind-hearted The following adjectives generally do not form degrees of comparison: 1. Limiting qualitative adjectives which single out or determine the type of things or persons, such as: previous, middle, left, childless, medical, dead, etc. 2. Relative adjectives (which are also limiting in their meaning) such as: woollen, wooden, flaxen, earthen, ashen. 3. Adjectives with comparative and superlative meaning (the so-called gradables) which are of Latin origin: former, inner, upper, junior, senior, prior, superior, etc. (originally with comparative meaning), and minimal, optimal, proximal, etc. (originally with superlative meaning). With most of them the comparative meaning has been lost and they are used as positive forms (the inner wall, the upper lip, superior quality, minimal losses). However, some comparatives borrowed from Latin (major, minor, exterior, interior, junior, senior) may form their own comparatives with a change of meaning. 4. Adjectives already denoting some gradation of quality, such as darkish, greenish, etc. Adjectives of participial origin 210. Only certain adjectives derived from participles reach full adjectival status. Among those in current use are interesting, charming, crooked, learned, ragged and those compounded with another element, which sometimes gives them quite a different meaning (good-looking, heartbreaking, hard-boiled, frost-bitten, weather-beaten, etc.). In most cases, however, the difference between the adjective and the participle is revealed only in the sentence. The difference lies in the verbal nature retained by the participle. The verbal nature is explicit when a direct object or a by-object is present. This can be seen from the following pairs of sentences: With an adjectiveWith a participleYou are insulting. His views were alarming The man was offended. You are insulting us. His views were alarming the audience. The man was offended by the secretarys remark. The verbal force of the participle is revealed in its limited combinability - it is not combinable with very. In the above sentences, it is possible to use very in the left-hand column, but not in the right-hand column. Some adjectives only look like participles, there being no corresponding verbs: downhearted, talented, diseased. In some cases there are corresponding verbs, but the -ed- participle is not interpreted as passive, because the corresponding verb can be used only intransitively: the escaped prisoner (the prisoner who has escaped) the departed guests (the guests who have departed) the faded curtains (the curtains which have faded) the retired officer (the officer who has retired) (See participles of intransitive verbs, 143.) Adjectives and adverbs Some adjectives coincide in form with adverbs, for example, slow, long, fast, above, real, mighty, sure, the last three being used as adverbs only in colloquial style. AdjectivesAdverbsThe examples above (given above) a fast walk It is real. He is sure of it. We could see nothing above or below to walk fast He is real good. It sure will help. Patterns of combinability 211. Adjectives are combined with several parts of speech. 1. They may combine with nouns, which they may premodify or postmodify: a black dress, a chivalrous gentleman, the delegates present. If there are several premodifying adjectives to one headword they have definite positional assignments. Generally descriptive adjectives precede the limiting ones, as in a naughty little boy, a beautiful French girl, but il there are several of each type, adjectives of different meanings stand in the following order: Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives Limiting  expressing denoting denoting denoting denoting adjectives  judgement size colour form age   or general      Noun characteri-       zation       pleasant large pale green thick old French  horrid small bright red round young left  nice little blue square     For example: a large black and white hunting dog, a small pale green oval seed. This order of words is of course not absolutely fixed, since many adjectives may be either descriptive or limiting (see above), depending on the context. The adjectives are not separated by commas, unless they belong to the same type: a nice little old man. However, if there is more than one adjective of the same type they are separated by commas: nasty, irritable, selfish man (all three belong to the type of judgement or general characterization). Postmodification is usual for the adjectives elect, absent, present, concerned, involved, proper. The president elect (that is: who has been elected and is soon to take office). In several noun-phrases of French origin (mostly legal or quasilegal) the adjective is also postpositional. attorney general heir apparent time immemorialbody politic Queen Regnant Lords Spiritual (Temporal) These noun-phrases are very similar to compounds and some of them are spelt as a compound, with a hyphen (knight-errant, postmaster-general). The plural ending is attached either to the first element, or to the second: court-martials postmaster-generalscourts-martial postmasters-general Postmodification may be due to the structural complexity of postmodifiers (the children easiest to teach, the climate peculiar to this country), or to the presence of only or all in preposition (the only actor suitable, the only person visible, all the money available). 2. Beside their usual function, that of modifying nouns, adjectives may be combined with other words in the sentence. They may be modified by adverbials of degree, like very, quite, that, rather, most, a lot, a sort of, a bit, enough, totally, perfectly, so... as: very long, a bit lazy, sort of naive, far enough, a little bit tired, a most beautiful picture, not so foolish as that, she is not that crazy. The adverb very can combine only with adjectives denoting the gradable properties. Thus it is possible to say very tired (tiredness may be of different degree), but it is impossible to say *very unknown, *very ceaseless, *very unique, as these adjectives do not allow of gradation. With the adverb too the indefinite article is placed between the adjective and the head-noun. With the adverb rather the article is placed after it: This is too difficult a problem to solve at once. This is rather a complicated matter. 3. Predicative adjectives are combined with the link verbs to be, to seem, to appear, to look, to turn, or notional verbs in a double predicate: He looks tired. She does not seem so crazy as before. She is quite healthy. She felt faint. If sounded rather fussy. The food tasted good. The flowers smell sweet. Syntactic functions 212. Adjectives may have different functions in the sentence. The most common are those of an attribute or a predicative. The attributes (premodifying and postmodifying) may be closely attached to their head-words (o good boy, the delegates present), or they may be loose (detached) (Clever and ambitious, he schemed as well as he could). In the first case the adjective forms a group with the noun it modifies; in the second case the adjective forms a sense-group separate from the head-word and the other parts of the sentence. A detached attribute is therefore separated by a comma from its head-word if it adjoins it, or from other parts of the sentence if it is distant from the head-word. As predicatives, adjectives may form a part of a compound nominal or double predicate (he was alone, the window was open. Old Jolyon sat alone, the dog went mad). Predicative adjectives may be modified by adverbials of manner, degree, or consequence and by clauses, forming long phrases as, in: He is not so foolish as to neglect it. She is not so crazy as you may imagine. It is not as simple as you think. Adjectives may also function as objective or subjective predicatives in complex constructions:  We consider him reliable. I can drink coffee hot. He pushed the door open. Better eat the apples fresh. I consider what he did awful. objects + objective predicativesThe fruits were picked ripe. The windows were flung open.  subjective predicatives Adjectives may be used parenthetically, conveying the attitude of the speaker to the contents of the sentence (strange, funny, curious, odd, surprising), often premodified by more or most. Strange, it was the same person. Most incredible, he deceived us. A certain type of exclamatory sentence is based on adjectives, often modified by other words: How good of you! How wonderful! Excellent! Just right! Substantivized adjectives 213. Substantivized adjectives may fall into several groups, according to their meaning and the nominal features they possess. 1. Some substantivized adjectives have only the singular form. They may have either the singular or plural agreement, depending on their meaning. These are: a) substantivized adjectives denoting generalized or abstract notions. They are used with the definite article and have singular agreement: the fabulous, the unreal, the invisible: The fabulous is always interesting. There are, however, certain exceptions. Substantivized adjectives denoting abstract notions may sometimes be used in the plural. Then no article is used: There are many variables and unknowns. b) substantivized adjectives denoting languages are used without a determiner, but are often modified by a pronoun. They also have singular agreement. My Spanish is very poor. He speaks excellent English. c) substantivized adjectives denoting groups of persons or persons of the same nationality are used with the definite article the and admit only of plural agreement the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dumb and deaf, the mute, the eminent, the English. He did not look an important personage, but the eminent rarely do. The poor were robbed of their lands. 2. Some substantivized adjectives have the category of number, that is they can have two forms - the singular and the plural. These are: a) substantivized adjectives denoting social rank or position, military ranks, party, creed, gender, nationality, race, groups of people belonging to certain times or epochs, etc. In the plural the use of the article is not obligatory: nobles, equals, superiors, inferiors, commercials, domestics, privates, regulars, ordinaries, marines, Christians, primitives, moderns, ancients, contemporaries, liberals, conservatives, Europeans, Asiatics, Eurasians, Indians, Easterns, blacks, whites, etc. When denoting an individual such words are used in the singular and are preceded by the indefinite article: a noble, a private, a regular, an ordinary, a Christian, a primitive, a liberal, etc. There were a few deads missing from the briefing. - How many have you killed? - One hundred and twenty two sures. Not counting possibles. Hes been working like a black. b) substantivized adjectives denoting animals and plants: evergreens, thoroughbreds (about horses). 3. Some substantivized adjectives have only the plural form. These are: a) substantivized adjectives denoting studies and examinations. They have either the singular or plural agreement depending on whether they denote one notion or a collection of notions: classics, finals (final examinations), midsessionals, etc. Finals were approaching. b) substantivized adjectives denoting collection of things, substances and foods. Some of these admit either of both the singular and plural agreement (chemicals, movables, necessaries, valuables, eatables, greens), others admit only of a singular agreement (bitters). c) substantivized adjectives which are the names of the parts of the body are used with the definite article the and admit of the plural agreement: the vitals, the whites (of the eyes). d) substantivized adjectives denoting colours are used in the plural without any article: greys, reds, purples, greens. THE PRONOUN 214. Pronouns are deictic words which point to objects, their properties and relations, their local or temporal reference, or placement without naming them. They constitute a limited class of words (that is a closed system) with numerous subclasses. They are generally differentiated into noun-pronouns (substituting nouns) and adjective-pronouns (substituting adjectives). Morphological composition and categorical characteristics 215. Pronouns may be of different structure: simple, compound, and composite. Simple pronouns comprise only one morpheme - the stem: I, you, he, we, etc.; this, that, some, who, all, one, etc. Compound pronouns comprise more than one stem: myself, themselves, somebody, everybody, anything, nothing, etc. Composite pronouns have the form of a phrase: each other, one another. Patterns of morphological change in pronouns vary greatly not only from subclass to subclass, but also within certain subclasses. Some pronouns have the category of number (I - we, this these), while others have not; some have the category of case expressed in a similar way to that of nouns (somebody somebodys), some have a pattern of their own (he - him), and others have no case distinctions at all. Some pronouns have person and gender distinctions, such as personal pronouns, while others have none. The pronouns also have specials forms to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects. This category is to be found again in personal pronouns (he/she - it), possessive pronouns (himself/herself - itself), conjunctive pronouns (who - what), relative pronouns (who - which), and interrogative pronouns (who - what). Subclasses of pronouns and their functions 216. Semantically all pronouns fall into the following subclasses: I. Personal pronouns are noun-pronouns, indicating persons (I, you, he, we, they) or non-persons (it, they) from the point of view of their relations to the speaker. Thus I (me) indicates the speaker himself, we (us) indicates the speaker together with some other person or persons, you indicates the person or persons addressed, while he, she, they (him, her, them) indicate persons (or things) which are neither the speaker nor the persons addressed to by the speaker. Personal pronouns have the category of person, number, case (nominative and objective), and gender, the latter is to be found in the 3rd person only: masculine and feminine is he - him, she - her; neuter case-forms it - it coincide. The nominative case form is generally used as subject of the sentence, or predicative in the compound nominal predicate in sentences like: It was I who did it. However, in colloquial style the form of the objective case is preferable, especially in sentences of the type: It is me. Both the nominative and the objective case forms are used after the conjunctions as and than in comparative constructions: She is as stout as I now; Last year he looked much older than I;She is as old as me; He was a better friend to you than me. The nominative case-form (as well as the objective) is used in elliptical sentences: Who is there? I. Who did it? Me. The objective case form is used mainly as an object (with or without a preposition), occasionally as an attribute in prepositional phrases: Give me your hand; Were you speaking about me?; The better half of me protested. The fact that semantically personal pronouns indicate persons or things restricts their functioning as adverbial modifiers. However, they may occur in this function in a prepositional phrase: He stood close to me; Keep behind me. The pronoun you implies a person, sometimes an animal, or an inanimate object, when the latter is personified: Glad to see you here, Mary; Oh, Cat, you are as clever as a man ... Its singular and plural forms, as well as the objective case forms, coincide: Are you in, John?; Where are you going, children? The plural and the singular forms are differentiated only through their co-referents (denoted by John, children), as both agree with the verb in the plural. Historically, the form you is the plural form, the singular form being thou (the objective case thee). It is no longer used nowadays except in poetry and other literary texts, where it produces a particular stylistic effect: So, said the messenger, Then thou are the spokesman. The pronouns he (him), she (her) usually refer to persons, he - to male, she - to female. However some other phenomena are often referred to as he or she in poetry and fiction. Those referred to as he are: sun, wind, fear, love; those referred to as she are: earth, moon, ship, boat, car, hope, justice, modesty and some others. Also countries, especially native countries, are referred to as she: England, France, Italy, the USA, etc. I was born in Ireland. She is the best country for me. The nominative case forms are used as subject or predicative; when used as predicatives both nominative and objective case forms are possible: At last he lost his way; It was he; It is him. It keeps true also for comparative constructions: She did it better than he (him). The pronoun it can perform functions varying so greatly that three statuses of this word should be differentiated. They are the personal pronoun it, the impersonal pronoun it, and the demonstrative pronoun it. The personal pronoun it refers to non-persons, that is, to animals, things and abstract notions, as in: The room was large. Somebody had already cleaned it. We had no mutual understanding, and I wanted it badly. The dog was sitting by him. Several times it had turned and looked up at the boy. However when speaking of pet animals, especially cats and dogs, it is usual to refer to them as he or she depending on whether they are male or female, as in: He is a very nice dog. He is my friend. He knows how I feel. Its Pussy. She wants to go out. The demonstrative pronoun it indicates non-persons or certain situations, mentioned in the previous context: Some were dancing, some tried to sing. A big man, bottle in hand, lay by the armchair. Clouds or smoke hung under the ceiling. Suddenly I felt sick of it all. Besides its anaphoric use, it is also used with demonstrative force when preceding the words it points to: Its my husband. Its Mary. It was a red rose. It may also have the force of a purely formal element of the sentence, as the formal subject or object devoid of any lexical meaning. Its function is to point to the real subject or object which comes after the predicate and is expressed either by an infinitive (an infinitive phrase) or by a gerund (a gerundial phrase), or else by a clause. It was nice to stop here. It was useless trying to see him. It was clear to everybody that she was not well. May I take it that you will keep your word? When it refers to the predicative (or any part in this position) it selves as means of producing emphasis: the word in the predicative position becomes prominent and therefore becomes the information focus of the sentence: It was he who did it. <5==> >= MB> A45;0;. (0: @07 >= MB> A45;0;). It was there that we met. <5==> B0< <K 2AB@5B8;8AL. ("0<-B> <K 8 2AB@5B8;8AL). It was to this room that Soames went. <5==> 2 MBC :><=0BC ?>H5; !><5.* * See Syntax, 121. The impersonal pronoun it functions as a purely structural element -the subject of impersonal sentences describing various states of nature and environment, or things, time, measure, or distance, etc., as in: It was raining; It was cold that day; Its spring already; Its 10 oclock; Its still sixty miles to the river. The pronoun they (them) is the plural form of the pronouns he, she and the personal it. Its syntactic functions are similar to those of the forms in the singular. It may be used as subject (They had no time) and as predicative (It's they who will answer first). The objective case form can also be used in these cases (Thats them). The same form is to be found in comparative constructions, as objects and adverbial modifiers: Do you know them, boy? (object) Try to catch up with them. (prepositional object) In front of them there were seven candles. (adverbial modifier) In addition to their usual function when they have personal meaning the pronouns we, you, they may be used as indefinite-personal, indicating people in general or a limited group of people. The difference between them is in their reference: we refers to a group of people including the speaker, you includes only the listener(s), and they excludes both the speaker and the listeners. As we know, geographic limits between dialects are not easy to establish. You never saw such a commotion up and down the house, in all your life, as when my Uncle Podger undertook to do a job. When you are tired they give you some pills, and in a minute you are your own self again. They say you were in the park with her? What do they teach you there? 217. Possessive pronouns indicate possession by persons (my, mine, your, yours, their, theirs) or non-persons (its, their, theirs). They comprise two sets of forms: the conjoint forms - my, your, his, her, our, their, which always combine with nouns and premodify them as attributes and the absolute forms - mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, which do not combine with nouns, but function as their substitutes. Thus, they may be adjective-pronouns when used as conjoint forms and noun-pronouns when used as absolute forms. There is no absolute form corresponding to the pronoun it. Both conjoint and absolute forms may function with reference to persons and non-persons; pointing back (with anaphorical force) and forward (with anticipatory force). My friends are waiting for me. I liked this house and its wonderful garden. Where are the dogs? Mine is under the table. The coat isn't mine, its yours. Hers was a wonderful room. A peculiarity of the English language is that possessive pronouns, not the article, are used with reference to parts of the body, personal belongings, relatives, etc. I raised my eyebrows. He rose up and put his hands in his small pockets. Where are you going to spend your leave? I cant see my way ahead. 218. Reflexive pronouns indicate identity between the person or non-person they denote and that denoted by the subject of the sentence. They are: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, structurally derived either from the possessive pronouns (myself, yourself, ourselves, yourselves), or from personal pronouns (himself, herself, itself, themselves); the pronoun oneself is derived from the indefinite pronoun one. Reflexive pronouns derived from possessive and personal pronouns have the categories of person, number, and gender in the 3d person singular only. The generalising reflexive pronoun oneself has none of these. Oh, I can do it myself. He felt himself grow hot to the roots of his hair. If these are several homogeneous subjects denoting different persons including the 1st, the 1st person plural reflexive is used: You, mother, and I must now think about ourselves. If there is no 1st person, the 2nd person plural reflexive is used: You and mother must now think of yourselves. If the subject is the indefinite pronoun one, the corresponding reflexive is used: One must not deceive oneself. If the subject is expressed by any other indefinite pronoun himself or themselves is used: Has anybody hurt himself? The most common functions of the reflexive pronouns are those of an apposition and objects (direct, indirect, prepositional): Cedric himself knew nothing whatever about it. (apposition) I have all kinds of beautiful sentiments myself. (apposition) I learned to dress myself many years ago. (direct object) How well you talk, said the Millers wife pouring herself a large glass of warm ale. (indirect object) She talks only about herself. (prepositional object) Less common are the functions of the subject, predicative, attribute, and adverbial modifiers: My wife and myself welcome you, sir. (subject) In some minutes she became herself again. (predicative) She showed me a large picture of herself as a bride. (attribute) My brother was a Robbins like myself. (adverbial modifier of comparison) He lived in a tiny cottage all by himself. (adverbial modifier of manner) 219. Reciprocal pronouns indicate a mutual relationship between two or more than two persons, or occasionally non-persons (each other, one another) who are at the same time the doer and the object of the same action. Thus They loved each other means that the doer A loved the object  and at the same time the doer  loved the object A. The pronoun each other generally implies that only two persons are involved, one another usually being preferred when more than two persons are involved. Both of them are composite words and have only one grammatical category - the category of case (each others, one anothers). Reciprocal pronouns in their common case form function as objects: Now they hate each other. They often quarrelled with one another. The possessive case forms are used as attributes: They stood silent, in each others arms. 220. Demonstrative pronouns point to persons or non-persons or their properties: this (these), that (those), such.* The first two of them have the category of number. This (these) and that (those) function both as noun-pronouns and adjective-pronouns; such functions only as an adjective-pronoun: * The demonstrative of it was given above. See Personal pronouns. This is my brother Rob. That is very kind of you.(noun-pronouns)This house is too large just for one person. She is such a silly little tiring.(adjective-pronouns) The general demonstrative meaning of this (these) is of relatively near reference in time or space, while that (those) implies distant reference in time or space. Both of them are commonly used anaphorically, pointing to things, persons, or situations denoted in the preceding context, as in the following examples with this and that: He tried the door. This did not yield. A tall blonde came forward. This was the barmans wife. I often wondered how you were getting on. That was very kind of you. Sometimes, however, these pronouns may be used with anticipatory force, pointing to something new, or something still to come: I know this youre a traitor. This time I'll win. Ive never seen this dress of yours. When used with words denoting periods of time (a day and its parts, week, month, year, century) the pronoun this implies that these periods include the moment of speaking: This year he is going abroad. I had no breakfast this morning. I havent seen her this week. When used with the words town, country, government the pronoun this implies ones in which the speaker lives or is staying at the moment of speaking. Phrases like in this town, in this country, this government, etc., should be translated into Russian by the actual names of the town or country as in the following: Englishman: I do like this country - / >G5=L ;N1;N =3;8N or by a possessive pronoun: / >G5=L ;N1;N A2>N (=0HC) AB@0=C. The pronoun that (those) pointing to something relatively remote in space or time may refer to something already known or past: Do you see that red roof over there? Thats my house. Oh! that was a sad mistake. That (those) can be used either as a noun-substitute or as a sentence-substitute. The perfume of the rose is more subtle that that of the lily. Syntactically the pronouns this and that can be subject, predicative, object, or attribute. This was my old dear car again. His story was like that. Do you remember this? The woods are so beautiful at this time of year. When used as attributes both this and that exclude the use of the article. The pronoun such points to a certain quality in things, persons, or situations. It is more often used anaphorically, although can also be used in its anticipatory function. I like such little towns as this. He could not love her. Such was everyones verdict. You can buy there such things as buns, sausage rolls, and plum cakes. Such never precedes the definite article, though it often occurs with the indefinite one, which is placed after such. Ive never seen such a beauty. 221. Indefinite pronouns indicate persons or non-persons or else their properties in a general way without defining the class of objects they belong to, class or properties they possess. They are: